Quick Tip presents lessons and information pertaining to Science"

Science

AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids are the building blocks (monomers) of proteins

Two individual amino acids can be linked to form a larger molecule, with the loss of a water molecule as a by-product of the reaction.

alanine
arginine
asparagine
aspartic acid
cysteine
glutamine
glutamic acid
glycine
histidine
isoleucine

leucine
lysine
methionine
phenylalanine
proline
serine
threonine
tryptophan
tyrosine
valine

Water (H2o) expands its volume by 9% upon freezing.

AQUIFERS

The surface of saturated material in an aquifer is known as the water table.

An aquifer is a geologic formation, group of formations, or part of a formation that contains sufficient saturated, permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs.

The principal water-yielding aquifers of North America can be grouped into five types: unconsolidated and semiconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers, sandstone aquifers, carbonate-rock aquifers, aquifers in interbedded sandstone and carbonate rocks, and aquifers in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

· Carbonate-rock:

Aquifers in carbonate rocks are most prominent in the central and southeastern parts of the Nation, but also occur in small areas as far west as southeastern California and as far east as northeastern Maine. Most of the carbonate-rock aquifers consist of limestone, but dolomite and marble locally yield water. The water-yielding properties of carbonate rocks vary widely; some yield almost no water and are considered to be confining units, whereas others are among the most productive aquifers known.

Most carbonate rocks originate as sedimentary deposits in marine environments. Compaction, cementation, and dolomitization processes might act on the deposits as they lithify and greatly change their porosity and permeability. However, the principal postdepositional change in carbonate rocks is the dissolution of part of the rock by circulating, slightly acidic groundwater. Solution openings in carbonate rocks range from small tubes and widened joints to caverns that may be tens of meters wide and hundreds to thousands of meters in length. Where they are saturated, carbonate rocks with well-connected networks of solution openings yield large amounts of water to wells that penetrate the openings, although the undissolved rock between the large openings may be almost impermeable.

· Igneous & Metamorphic:

Large areas of the eastern, northeastern, northwest and north-central parts of the Nation are underlain by crystalline rocks. Spaces between the individual mineral crystals of crystalline rocks are microscopically small, few, and generally unconnected; therefore, porosity is insignificant. These igneous and metamorphic rocks are permeable only where they are fractured, and they generally yield only small amounts of water to wells. However, because these rocks extend over large areas, large volumes of groundwater are withdrawn from them, and, in many places, they are the only reliable source of water supply.

Although crystalline rocks are geologically complex, movement of water through the rocks is totally dependent on the presence of secondary openings; rock type has little or no effect on groundwater flow.

Groundwater percolates downward through the regolith which is a layer of weathered rock, alluvium, colluvium, and soil to fractures in underlying bedrock. The water moves from highland recharge areas to discharge areas, such as springs and streams at lower altitudes.

Volcanic rocks have a wide range of chemical, mineralogic, structural, and hydraulic properties, due mostly to variations in rock type and the way the rock was ejected and deposited. Unaltered pyroclastic rocks, for example, might have porosity and permeability similar to poorly sorted sediments. Hot pyroclastic material, however, might become welded as it settles, and, thus, be almost impermeable. Silicic lavas tend to be extruded as thick, dense flows, and they have low permeability except where they are fractured. Basaltic lavas tend to be fluid, and, they form thin flows that have considerable pore space at the tops and bottoms of the flows. Numerous basalt flows commonly overlap, and the flows are separated by soil zones or alluvial materials that form permeable zones. Columnar joints that develop in the central parts of basalt flows create passages that allow water to move vertically through the basalt. Basaltic rocks are the most productive aquifers in volcanic rocks.

In some places, the basaltic-rock aquifers are extremely thick. For example, those of the Columbia Plateau aquifer system in Washington are more than 2,544 meters thick in places, and those of the Snake River Plain aquifer system in Idaho are locally more than 800 meters thick. In most places, however, the thickness of these aquifers is 100 meters or less. Groundwater flow in the basaltic-rock aquifers is local to intermediate. In Idaho, the basaltic-rock aquifers are extremely permeable, and numerous large springs discharge several tens of cubic meters per second from them.

· Sandstone:

The sandstone aquifers are level or gently dip. Because they are commonly interbedded with siltstone or shale, most of the water in these aquifers is under confined conditions. Groundwater-flow systems in mostly level, relatively thin sandstone aquifers are local to intermediate. Regional, intermediate, and local flow is present in the sandstone aquifers in the western United States, except for those in Oklahoma, where flow is mostly local. Many sandstone aquifers contain highly mineralized water at depths of only a few hundred meters.

In Wisconsin and adjacent states, three Cambrian and Ordovician age sandstone aquifers are combined into an aquifer system that is as much as 650 meters thick. Paleozoic through Cenozoic age sandstones that extend northeastward from Wyoming form the Northern Great Plains aquifer system, which has permeable parts of more than 2,000 meters thick in some places in a deep structural basin. Not all of these thick aquifers, however, contain freshwater.

· Sand & Gravel:

Unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers can be grouped into four categories: basin-fill aquifers, which also are called "valley-fill aquifers"; blanket sand and gravel aquifers; glacial-deposit aquifers; and stream-valley aquifers which are of generally small extent and not mapped. All four types have intergranular porosity, and all contain water primarily under unconfined or water-table conditions. The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifers is variable, depending on the sorting of aquifer materials and the amount of silt and clay present, but generally it is high. Aquifer thickness ranges from a few meters or tens of meters in the blanket sands along the eastern Atlantic coast of the United States to several hundred meters in the basin-fill aquifers of the southwestern United States. The unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers are susceptible to contamination because of their generally high hydraulic conductivity. Groundwater in these aquifers flows along relatively short flow paths typical of local flow systems; however, all of the basin-fill aquifers have intermediate flow systems, and the thick basin fill of California's Central Valley aquifer system has a regional flow system. Likewise, the thick blanket sands of the High Plains aquifer and the Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer of the central United States have regional flow systems.

Basin-fill or valley-fill aquifers were deposited in depressions formed by faulting or erosion or both. Fine-grained deposits of silt and clay form local confining units in these aquifers, and thick sequences of the unconsolidated deposits become more compact and less permeable with depth. Most basins are bounded by low-permeability rocks, but some in the western United States are hydraulically connected to adjacent carbonate-rock aquifers. Some basin-fill aquifers, such as those in the Central Valley aquifer system of California and in parts of Arizona, have supplied large amounts of water for irrigation and other uses.

Widespread, blanket-like deposits of sand and gravel form aquifers in lowland areas of Alaska, atop lava plateaus in Washington, along the Atlantic and eastern Gulf coasts, along part of the lower reaches of the Mississippi River, and in the High Plains. These aquifers mostly consist of alluvial deposits. They commonly contain water under unconfined conditions, and most groundwater flow in them travels short to intermediate distances from recharge to discharge areas. The High Plains aquifer is the most intensively pumped aquifer in North America.

Glacial-deposit aquifers form numerous local, and some regional, highly productive aquifers in the area north of the line of glaciation. These aquifers consist of outwash, terrace, or ice-contact deposits, and they mostly occupy bedrock valleys or areas of interlobate ice marginal deposition. In places, the valley deposits are buried beneath low-permeability till. Groundwater flow in the glacial-deposit aquifers is primarily local, from recharge areas near stream valley walls to discharge in the streams.

Semiconsolidated aquifers consist of semiconsolidated sand interbedded with silt, clay, and minor carbonate rocks. Porosity is intergranular, and the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifers is moderate to high. The aquifers underlie the Coastal Plains of the eastern and southern United States, and they are of fluvial, deltaic, and shallow marine origin. The aquifers are in a thick wedge of sediments that dips and thickens coastward; in places, the sands of the aquifers are more than 650 meters thick

· Sandstone & Carbonate:

In scattered places in the United States, carbonate rocks are interbedded with almost equal amounts of water-yielding sandstone. In most places where these two rock types are interbedded, the carbonate rocks yield much more water than the sandstone. The larger and majority of these are found in Mid- West Texas and along the Appalachians range, and to a lesser degree in Montana and Wyoming. The aquifers in the Mammoth Cave area of Kentucky are examples of sandstone and carbonate-rock aquifers.

Most carbonate rocks originate as sedimentary deposits in marine environments. Compaction, cementation, and dolomitization processes might act on the deposits as they lithify and greatly change their porosity and permeability. However, the principal postdepositional change in carbonate rocks is the dissolution of part of the rock by circulating, slightly acidic groundwater. Solution openings in carbonate rocks range from small tubes and widened joints to caverns that may be tens of meters wide and hundreds to thousands of meters long. Where they are saturated, carbonate rocks with well-connected networks of solution openings yield large amounts of water to wells that penetrate the openings, although the undissolved rock between the large openings may be almost impermeable.

· Other:

Rocks identified as "other" include large-to-small areas that are designated "minor aquifer," "not a principal aquifer," or "confining unit"

Such areas are underlain by low-permeability deposits and rocks, unsaturated materials, or aquifers that supply little water because they are of local extent, poorly permeable, or both. Permeability is the relative ease with which water will move through a rock unit; aquifers are more permeable than confining units. Rocks and deposits with minimal permeability, which are not considered to be aquifers, consist of intrusive igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks, shale, siltstone, evaporite deposits, silt, and clay.

Large areas of the eastern, northeastern, and north-central parts of the Nation are underlain by crystalline rock. These igneous and metamorphic rocks are permeable only where they are fractured, and they generally yield only small amounts of water to wells. However, because these rocks extend over large areas, large volumes of groundwater are withdrawn from them, and in many places they are the only reliable source of water supply. Because the crystalline rocks have minimal permeability, they are not mapped as principal aquifers, but they are mapped as other rocks.

Surficial stream valley aquifers or buried principal aquifers are also sometimes in some places categorized as "other". Local stream-valley alluvial aquifers south of the line of continental glaciation that yield small-to-large amounts of water are in the valleys of many major streams that cross principal aquifers, but the stream-valley aquifers are not mapped consistently between states.

Recharging Aquifers:

Water (Rain, Snowmelt, etc) flowing into recharge areas, which is usually land covered with soil and trees, refills the aquifer. Bogs and swamps may absorb and store water that later slowly drains into aquifers.

Some major US Aquifers:

The Biscayne aquifer in Southeast Florida is an unconfined aquifer, which means that top portion of the aquifer is the water table. It is also a coastal aquifer because it merges with the floor of Biscayne Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. It covers over 4,000 square miles, underlying parts of four Counties, including all of Dade and a majority of Broward. The base of the aquifer slopes seaward about 240’ below sea level.

The Edwards Aquifer is one of the most prolific artesian aquifers in the world. Located on the eastern edge of Edwards Plateau in the state of Texas, it discharges about 900,000 *acre feet (1.1 km³) of water a year. A water-table aquifer is one in which the water is under atmospheric pressure. Water will not rise above the level of the "table", and the table rises and falls in response to rainfall and recharge. Only a small portion of the Edwards is a water-table aquifer. The water-table portion of the Edwards is the recharge zone, where the Edwards limestone is exposed at the land surface. Here, because there are no confining rock layers on top of the Edwards, the water is under atmospheric pressure. Water will not rise in a well above the level of the water table. Once recharge water works its way by gravity down into the artesian zone, there are other rock formations lying over the Edwards, and water is trapped inside. The artesian zone of the Edwards is confined between two relatively impermeable formations - the Glen Rose formation below and the Del Rio clay on top. The sheer weight of new water entering the Aquifer in the recharge zone puts tremendous pressure on water that is already deeper down in the formation. Flowing artesian wells and springs exist where hydraulic pressure is sufficient to force water up through wells and faults to the surface.

The Floridan aquifer system underlies an area of about 100,000 square miles in southeastern Mississippi, southern Alabama, southern Georgia, southern South Carolina, and all of Florida. The Floridan is one of the most productive aquifer systems in the world. Florida has 27 springs which discharge 100 cubic feet per second or more, out of 78 in the Nation. All these springs issue from the Upper Floridan aquifer and practically all of them are located in places where the aquifer is exposed at the land surface or is covered by less than 100 feet of clayey upper confining unit. Dissolution of the carbonate rocks of the aquifer in these places has resulted in the development of large caverns, many of which channel the ground water to major spring orifices. Some of the springs are large enough to form the headwaters of surface streams.

The Kirkwood-Cohansey aquifer system is in the New Jersey Pine Barrens. It is considered one of the purest sources of water in the US. It receives about 44 inches of precipitation each year. About fifty percent of this water is transpired by vegetation or evaporates back into the atmosphere. A small amount enters streams and rivers as storm runoff. About 17 to 20 inches annually actually enters the ground.

The Ogallala aquifer (High Plains Aquifer) occupies the High Plains of the United States, extending northward from western Texas to South Dakota. The Ogallala is the leading geologic formation in what is known as the High Plains Aquifer System. The entire system underlies about 450,000 square kilometers (174,000 square miles) of eight states. It is one of the World’s largest aquifers, and approximately 26 percent of the irrigated land in the United States overlies this aquifer system, which yields about 30 percent of the nation's ground water used for irrigation. In addition, the aquifer system provides drinking water to 82 percent of the people who live within the aquifer boundary

The Mahomet aquifer is the most important aquifer in east-central Illinois. The sand and gravel aquifer is part of the buried Mahomet Bedrock Valley. It underlies 15 counties and ranges from 50 to 200 feet. The Mahomet Aquifer consists of sand and gravel deposited by glacial meltwater flowing westward along the Mahomet Bedrock Valley during the pre-Illinois glacial episode. This bedrock valley forms the western part of the Teays-Mahomet Bedrock Valley System that extends into Illinois from Indiana.

The Spokane Valley-Rathdrum Prairie aquifer is designated a "sole source aquifer" and extends across an area covering about 325 square miles and provides drinking water for nearly 400,000 people. Originating from the southern end of Lake Pend Oreille (pronounced ponderay), the unconfined aquifer extends beneath the Rathdrum Prairie in Idaho, and Washington's Spokane Valley. Most of the groundwater then flows north up the "Hillyard trough", and discharges as springs along the Little Spokane River.

*It is defined by the volume of one acre of surface area to a depth of one foot. Since the area of one acre is defined as 66 by 660 feet then the volume of an acre-foot is exactly 43560 cubic feet

All of the Coastal Plain aquifers (which include Mississippi embayment and Southeastern Coastal Plain) and aquifer systems are comprised predominantly of poorly consolidated to unconsolidated clastic sedimentary rocks. The distribution and pattern of permeability within the different Coastal Plain aquifer systems are a function of lithology and primary porosity. In general, the most permeable Coastal Plain aquifers consist of sand and some gravel and are separated by silt, clay, marl, or chalk confining units. As these aquifers extend down-dip, most grade to less permeable facies, such as clay or marl, that are part of adjoining confining units.

The surficial aquifer system consists of alluvial aquifers and includes one major and three minor aquifers. In terms of water use and areal extent, the most important aquifer is the highly productive Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer. The minor aquifers include the Arkansas River, the Ouachita-Saline Rivers, and the Red River alluvial aquifers. The Arkansas River alluvial aquifer is not as widespread as the other two aquifers, but locally is an important water source.

There are two end members in the spectrum of types of aquifers; confined and unconfined (with semi-confined being in between). Unconfined aquifers are sometimes also called water table or phreatic aquifers, because their upper boundary is the water table or phreatic surface. Typically (but not always) the shallowest aquifer at a given location is unconfined, meaning it does not have a confining layer (an aquitard or aquiclude) between it and the surface. The term "perched" refers to ground water accumulating above a low-permeability unit or strata, such as a clay layer. This term is generally used to refer to a small local area of ground water that occurs at an elevation higher than a regionally-extensive aquifer. The difference between perched and unconfined aquifers is their size (perched is smaller).

STANDARD WATER-USE TERMS

acre-foot (acre-ft)---the volume of water required to cover 1 acre of land (43,560 square feet) to a depth of 1 foot.

animal specialties---water use associated with the production of fish in captivity except fish hatcheries, fur-bearing animals in captivity, horses, rabbits, and pets. See also livestock water use.

aquaculture---farming of organisms that live in water, such as fish, shellfish, and algae.

aquifer---a geologic formation, group of formations, or part of a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs.

Aquitard is a zone within the earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another. An aquitard can sometimes, if completely impermeable, be called an Aquiclude or Aquifuge.

commercial water use---water for motels, hotels, restaurants, office buildings, other commercial facilities, and institutions. The water may be obtained from a public supply or may be self supplied. See also public supply and self- supplied water.

consumptive use---that part of water withdrawn that is evaporated, transpired, incorporated into products or crops, consumed by humans or livestock, or otherwise removed from the immediate water environment. Also referred to as water consumed.

conveyance loss---water that is lost in transit from a pipe, canal, conduit, or ditch by leakage or evaporation. Generally, the water is not available for further use; however, leakage from an irrigation ditch, for example, may percolate to a ground-water source and be available for further use.

cooling water---water used for cooling purposes, such as of condensers and nuclear reactors.

delivery/release---the amount of water delivered to the point of use and the amount released after use; the difference between these amounts is usually the same as the consumptive use. See also consumptive use.

domestic water use---water for household purposes, such as drinking, food preparation, bathing, washing clothes and dishes, flushing toilets, and watering lawns and gardens. Also called residential water use. The water may be obtained from a public supply or may be self supplied. See also public supply and self-supplied water.

evaporation---process by which water is changed from a liquid into a vapor. See also evapotranspiration and transpiration.

evapotranspiration---a collective term that includes water discharged to the atmosphere as a result of evaporation from the soil and surface-water bodies and as a result of plant transpiration. See also evaporation and transpiration.

freshwater---water that contains less than 1,000 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of dissolved solids; generally, more than 500 mg/L of dissolved solids is undesirable for drinking and many industrial uses.

ground water---generally all subsurface water as distinct from surface water; specifically, that part of the subsurface water in the saturated zone (a zone in which all voids are filled with water) where the water is under pressure greater than atmospheric.

hydroelectric power water use---the use of water in the generation of electricity at plants where the turbine generators are driven by falling water. Hydroelectric water use is classified as an instream use in this report.

in-channel use---see instream use.

industrial water use---water used for industrial purposes such as fabrication, processing, washing, and cooling, and includes such industries as steel, chemical and allied products, paper and allied products, mining, and petroleum refining. The water may be obtained from a public supply or may be self supplied. See also public supply and self- supplied water.

instream use---water that is used, but not withdrawn, from a ground- or surface-water source for such purposes as hydroelectric power generation, navigation, water-quality improvement, fish propagation, and recreation. Sometimes called nonwithdrawal use or in-channel use.

irrigation district---a cooperative, self-governing public corporation set up as a subdivision of the State government, with definite geographic boundaries, organized and having taxing power to obtain and distribute water for irrigation of lands within the district; created under the authority of a State legislature with the consent of a designated fraction of the landowners or citizens.

irrigation water use---artificial application of water on lands to assist in the growing of crops and pastures or to maintain vegetative growth in recreational lands such as parks and golf courses.

kilowatthour (kWh)---a unit of energy equivalent to one thousand watthours.

livestock water use---water for livestock watering, feed lots, dairy operations, fish farming, and other on-farm needs. Livestock as used here includes cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, and poultry. Also included are animal specialties. See also rural water use and animal specialties water use.

million gallons per day (Mgal/d)---a rate of flow of water.

mining water use---water use for the extraction of minerals occurring naturally including solids, such as coal and ores; liquids, such as crude petroleum; and gases, such as natural gas. Also includes uses associated with quarrying, well operations (dewatering), milling (crushing, screening, washing, floatation, and so forth), and other preparations customarily done at the mine site or as part of a mining activity. Does not include water used in processing, such as smelting, refining petroleum, or slurry pipeline operations. These uses are included in industrial water use.

offstream use---water withdrawn or diverted from a ground- or surface-water source for public-water supply, industry, irrigation, livestock, thermoelectric power generation, and other uses. Sometimes called off-channel use or withdrawal.

per capita use---the average amount of water used per person during a standard time period, generally per day.

public supply---water withdrawn by public and private water suppliers and delivered to users. Public suppliers provide water for a variety of uses, such as domestic, commercial, thermoelectric power, industrial, and public water use. See also commercial water use, domestic water use, thermoelectric power water use, industrial water use, and public water use.

public-supply deliveries---water provided to users through a public-supply distribution system.

public water use---water supplied from a public-water supply and used for such purposes as firefighting, street washing, and municipal parks and swimming pools. See also public supply.

reclaimed wastewater---wastewater treatment plant effluent that has been diverted for beneficial use before it reaches a natural waterway or aquifer.

recycled water---water that is used more than one time before it passes back into the natural hydrologic system.

residential water use---see domestic water use.

return flow---the water that reaches a ground- or surface-water source after release from the point of use and thus becomes available for further use.

reuse---see recycled water.

rural water use---term used in previous water-use circulars to describe water used in suburban or farm areas for domestic and livestock needs. The water generally is self supplied, and includes domestic use, drinking water for livestock, and other uses, such as dairy sanitation, evaporation from stock-watering ponds, and cleaning and waste disposal. See also domestic water use, livestock water use, and self-supplied water.

saline water---water that contains more than 1,000 milligrams per liter of dissolved solids.

self-supplied water---water withdrawn from a surface- or ground-water source by a user rather than being obtained from a public supply.

standard industrial classification (SIC) codes---four- digit codes established by the Office of Management and Budget and used in the classification of establishments by type of activity in which they are engaged.

surface water---an open body of water, such as a stream or a lake.

thermoelectric power water use---water used in the process of the generation of thermoelectric power. The water may be obtained from a public supply or may be self supplied. See also public supply and self-supplied water.

transpiration---process by which water that is absorbed by plants, usually through the roots, is evaporated into the atmosphere from the plant surface. See also evaporation and evapotranspiration.

wastewater---water that carries wastes from homes, businesses, and industries.

wastewater treatment---the processing of wastewater for the removal or reduction of contained solids or other undesirable constituents.

wastewater-treatment return flow---water returned to the hydrologic system by wastewater-treatment facilities.

water-resources region---designated natural drainage basin or hydrologic area that contains either the drainage area of a major river or the combined drainage areas of two or more rivers; of 21 regions, 18 are in the conterminous United States, and one each are in Alaska, Hawaii, and the Caribbean. (See map on inside of front cover.)

water-resources subregion---the 21 designated water-resources regions of the United States are subdivided into 222 subregions. Each subregion includes that area drained by a river system, a reach of a river and its tributaries in that reach, a closed basin(s), or a group of streams forming a coastal drainage system.

water transfer---artificial conveyance of water from one area to another.

water use---1) in a restrictive sense, the term refers to water that is actually used for a specific purpose, such as for domestic use, irrigation, or industrial processing. In this report, the quantity of water use for a specific category is the combination of self-supplied withdrawals and public-supply deliveries. 2) More broadly, water use pertains to human's interaction with and influence on the hydrologic cycle, and includes elements such as water withdrawal, delivery, consumptive use, wastewater release, reclaimed wastewater, return flow, and instream use. See also offstream use and instream use.

watthour (Wh)---an electrical energy unit of measure equal to one watt of power supplied to, or taken from, an electrical circuit steadily for one hour.

withdrawal---water removed from the ground or diverted from a surface-water source for use. See also offstream use and self-supplied water.

ASTEROIDS

An asteroid is any of numerous small planetary bodies that revolve around the sun. Asteroids are also called minor planets or planetoids. Most of them are in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, and most asteroids are found in this belt because of the gravitational interaction between the solar system and the celestial bodies in it. Over 6,000 asteroids have been named and 70,000 have been identified. The belt contains more than 200 asteroids larger than 60 miles (100 kilometers) in diameter. Scientists estimate that there could be as many as 800,000 or more asteroids in the belt larger than 3/5 mile (1 kilometer).

Many asteroids follow orbits outside the belt. For example, a number of asteroids called Trojans follow the same orbit as does Jupiter. Three groups of asteroids -- Atens, Amors, and Apollos -- orbit in the inner solar system and are known as near-Earth asteroids. They also vary in their size. Ceres is the largest known asteroid and is 940 km in diameter. Some of the smallest asteroids are just 6 meters in diameter. The mass of all the asteroids added together, is believed to less than the mass of our Moon. Only 200,000 asteroids have been discovered so far, but a billion more undiscovered asteroids likely exist in our solar system-

They are considered to be remnants of an early broken planet of the solar system. Asteroids have no fixed shape and are too small to be spherical in shape. They are ellipsoids (two dimensional figure), dumbbell or irregularly shaped. These objects were left over from the time the planets formed. Elsewhere in the solar system, other such objects gathered together to form the planets and satellites.

Studies of an asteroid's reflected light as well as analyses of meteorites have provided information about the composition of asteroids. Astronomers classify asteroids into two broad groups based on their composition. One group of asteroids dominates the outer part of the belt. These asteroids are rich in carbon. Their composition has not changed much since the solar system formed. Asteroids in the second group, which are located in the inner part of the belt, are rich in minerals. These asteroids formed from melted materials. The average temperature of the surface of a typical asteroid is -100 degrees F (-73 degrees C).

Most asteroids follow elliptical (oval-shaped) orbits in the asteroid belt. Groups of asteroids that follow the same orbit are called Hirayama families, named after Kiyotsugu Hirayama, the Japanese astronomer who first discovered them.

Asteroids are made of different minerals and substances. This depends on the planet they broke away from in a collision, as well as the chemical reactions they might have experienced while orbiting in the solar system. The asteroids closest to the Sun are mostly carbonaceous and the ones further away are composed of silicate rock. The metallic asteroids are made of 70-80% iron and the remaining is nickel with many other metals such as iridium mixed in. Some are also made of half silicate and half metallic.

For example the asteroid Ceres (the mass of Ceres is 25% of the combined mass of all the asteroids) is composed of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle, whereas Vesta has a nickel-iron core, basaltic crust and a covering of magnesium iron silicate (olivine mantle).

Asteroids composition has been classified as the following:

C class asteroids: They are found in the Earth's outer belt and are darker and more carbonaceous than the ones found in the S class.

D class asteroids: They are also known as Trojan asteroids of Jupiter and are dark and carbonaceous in composition.

S class asteroids: They are found in the Earth's inner belt, closer to Mars and are composed of mostly stone and iron.

V class asteroids: They are a far-out group of asteroids that follow a path between the orbits of Jupiter and Uranus and are made of igneous, eruptive materials.

ATMOSPHERE OF EARTH

At present the composition of our atmosphere is 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, and 1% other gases.
Earth's atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth and retained by the Earth's gravity.

The Air pressure at sea level, the air pressure is about 14.7 pounds per square inch. As you climb in altitude, the air pressure decreases. At an altitude of 10,000 feet, the air pressure is 10 pound per square inch (and there is less oxygen to breathe). Conversely, when you travel down into the earth, the pressure increases, as well as the heat..

The Troposphere

The troposphere is the lowest region in the Earth's atmosphere. On the Earth, it goes from ocean (ground) level up to about 11 miles high. The weather and clouds occur in the troposphere. In the troposphere, the temperature generally decreases as altitude increases. is where all weather takes place; it is the region of rising and falling packets of air. The air pressure at the top of the troposphere is only 10% of that at sea level (0.1 atmospheres). There is a thin buffer zone between the troposphere and the next layer called the tropopause.

The Stratosphere and Ozone Layer

Above the troposphere is the stratosphere which extends between 11 and 31 miles above the earth's surface, and here air flow is mostly horizontal. The thin *ozone layer in the upper stratosphere has a high concentration of ozone, a particularly reactive form of oxygen. This layer is primarily responsible for absorbing the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The formation of this layer is a delicate matter, since only when oxygen is produced in the atmosphere can an ozone layer form, and prevent an intense flux of ultraviolet radiation from reaching the surface, where it is quite a hazard to mankind, and animals alike.

The largest average area ever recorded was 26.5 million square kilometers, recorded in 2000. The year 2000 also saw the largest area on a given date: 29 million square kilometers. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from approximately 15 km to 35 km above Earth's surface, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. Ten percent of the ozone in the atmosphere is contained in the troposphere, the lowest part of our atmosphere where all of our weather takes place. Tropospheric ozone has two sources: about 10 % is transported down from the stratosphere while the remainder is created in smaller amounts through different mechanisms.

There is less ozone over the equator than over other parts of the world. The average thickness is about 300 DU (Dobson Units), which equals a three millimeter (or 0.12") thick layer cloud of compressed ozone. Obviously, the ozone layer is really thin!

The concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation emitted from the Sun. At present there is considerable concern that man made flourocarbon compounds may be depleting the ozone (There was no ozone 650 millions year ago) layer, with dire future consequences for life on the Earth. Interestingly, Ozone found in the lowest levels of the atmosphere can have harmful effects on humans. People with asthma or other breathing problems are especially prone to its effects.

Most ozone found in our atmosphere is formed by an interaction between oxygen molecules and ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun. Oxygen molecules make up about 21% of all gases in the earth's atmosphere; consisting of two atoms of oxygen and are therefore labeled O₂. Instead of being made up of 2 atoms it contains 3 atoms.

Without the Ozone, we would most likely perish in time.

*The ozone layer was discovered by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson in 1913.

The Mesosphere

The mesosphere is characterized by temperatures that quickly decrease as height increases. The mesosphere extends from between 31 and 50 miles above the earth's surface.

Ionosphere

The ionosphere (or thermosphere), starts at about 43-50 miles high and continues for hundreds of miles (about 400 miles). where many atoms are ionized (have gained or lost electrons so they have a net electrical charge). The ionosphere is very thin, but it is where aurora take place, and is also responsible for absorbing the most energetic photons from the Sun, and for reflecting radio waves, thereby making long-distance radio communication possible.

The structure of the ionosphere is strongly influenced by the charged particle wind from the Sun (solar wind), which is in turn governed by the level of Solar activity. One measure of the structure of the ionosphere is the free electron density, which is an indicator of the degree of ionization.

The term AU is the Astronomical unit of measurement referred to for the solar system. The distance from Earth to our Sun (93,000,000 miles) is one AU, the end of the Milky Way Galaxy being about fifty thousand AU's.

A light year is 10,000,000,000,000 kilometers, an enormous distance.

CANYONS OF THE WORLD
(Over 500 Meters)

The word canyon is generally used in the United States, while the word gorge is more common in Europe and Oceania, though it is also used in some parts of the United States and Canada

Name	Depth	Country
Batopilas Canyon	5,904 m	MX
Colca Canyon	3,269' ( Average. 3,400 m)	Peru
Columbia River Gorge	4,000' (1,300 m)	US
Copper Canyon	5,770 m	MX
Cotahuasi Gorge	3,354 m	Peru
Fish River Canyon	500 m	Aftrica
Grand Canyon (US)	4,674'	US
Hells Canyon	7,993' (2,436 m)	US
Iron Gate Gorge	500 m	Romania/Serbia
Joseph Canyon	2,000'	US
Kali Gandaki Gorge	1,301-2,600 m	Nepal
Kings Canyon	8,200' ( 2,400 m)	US
Mariana Trench (Worlds deepest underwater trench)	6.8 miles (11,000 m)	Marianas Islands
Nazare Canyon	5,000 m	Portugal
Samaria Gorge	1,250 m	Isle of Crete
Sin Forosa Canyon	5,904 m	MX
Taraecuz Canyon	4,674 m	MX
Tekeze Gorge	2,000 m	Africa
Urique Canyon	6,136 m	MX
Vikos Gorge	1,000 m	Greece
Yarlung Tsangpo Gorge	16,659' (5,382 m)	Tibet
Zhemchug Canyon (Underwater canyon)	2,600 m	Bering Sea

CLOUDS

Description of Cloud types:

High-Level Clouds
Cloud types include: cirrus and cirrostratus.

-These form above 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) and since the temperatures are so cold at such high elevations, these clouds are primarily composed of ice crystals. High-level clouds are typically thin and white in appearance, but can appear in a magnificent array of colors when the sun is low on the horizon.

Mid-Level Clouds
Cloud types include: altocumulus, altostratus.

-Typically appear between 6,500 to 20,000 feet (2,000 to 6,000 meters). Because of their lower altitudes, they are composed primarily of water droplets, however, they can also be composed of ice crystals when temperatures are cold enough.

Low-Level Clouds
Cloud types include: nimbostratus and stratocumulus.

-Mostly composed of water droplets since their bases generally lie below 6,500 feet (2,000 meters). However, when temperatures are cold enough, these clouds may also contain ice particles and snow.

Clouds with Vertical Development
Cloud types include: fair weather cumulus and cumulonimbus.

-The cumulus cloud is generated most commonly through either thermal convection or frontal lifting; these clouds can grow to heights in excess of 39,000 feet (12,000 meters), releasing incredible amounts of energy through the condensation of water vapor within the cloud itself.

Other Cloud Types
Cloud types include:
Contrails (also known as a condensation trail, is a cirrus-like trail of condensed water vapor often resembling the tail of a kite. Contrails are produced at high altitudes where extremely cold temperatures freeze water droplets in a matter of seconds before they can evaporate. Often exhaust fumes from a jet engine. If the surrounding air is cold enough, a state of saturation is attained and ice crystals develop, producing a contrail.), Billow clouds ( Billow clouds are created from instability associated with air flows having marked vertical shear and weak thermal stratification), mammatus (Mammatus are pouch-like cloud structures and a rare example of clouds in sinking air, usually seen after the worst of a thunderstorm has passed), orographic (When air is confronted by a mountain, it is lifted up and over the mountain, cooling as it rises. If the air cools to its saturation point, the water vapor condenses and a cloud forms), and pileus cloud ( is a smooth cloud found attached to either a mountain top or growing cumulus tower).

The lowest part of the Clouds are visible accumulations of water droplets or solid ice crystals that float in the Earth's troposphere Earth's atmosphere), moving with the wind. From space, clouds are visible as a white veil surrounding the planet.

Clouds form when water vapor (water that has evaporated from the surface of the Earth) condenses (turns into liquid water or solid ice) onto microscopic dust particles (or other tiny particles) floating in the air. This condensation (cloud formation) happens when warm and cold air meet, when warm air rises up the side of a mountain and cools as it rises, and when warm air flows over a colder area, like a cool body of water. This occurs because cool air can hold less water vapor than warm air, and excess water condenses into either liquid or ice.

Water vapor and particles in the air such as dust or sea spray. If the air is saturated with water, the water vapor can condense into droplets or be deposited as ice crystals around the particles. A collection of billions of these tiny droplets or ice crystals forms a cloud.

A mass of air can become saturated with water when it is uplifted and cooled. Air is uplifted by a number of different processes, including orographic ascent, convection, and convergence. Orographic ascent takes place when the shape of the landscape forces air upward; convection occurs when air at ground level is heated by Earth's surface, becomes less dense, and then rises up through the cooler, denser air above it; and convergence happens when two air masses meet, forcing one of them upward. While most clouds are produced by uplift, some clouds are formed when water vapor is added to the air, for example, due to exhaust from an airplane.

Clouds continuously shift and change shape because of air movement. They dissipate as the water droplets evaporate or move apart from each other. Winds also carry clouds across the sky. Because different levels of the atmosphere have different winds, it is possible to see clouds that are at different levels moving at different speeds.

If you watch clouds over a period of time, you will likely see them forming, moving, and changing shape. These clouds can float because they are warmer that their surrounding environment.

Clouds do not move by themselves. They are carried away by the winds that prevail at the cloud level. The speed and direction of the winds change from layer to layer in the atmosphere un to great heights. Sometimes a jet stream will be blowing over our head with a speed more than a hurricane and we may not be aware of it.

So clouds move very fast when the wind is strong at the cloud-base level. Even when the clouds move very fast, they may seem to move slowly when its height is more. Low-level cloud seems to move fast even if its speed is less. For example, the stratus which forms nearest to the surface always seems to move very fast.

Comets

When looking at the night sky and you observe a comet, it will appear to move very slowly, when in fact it is hurtling through space at several thousands of miles per hour. This is because very few of them come within a few million miles of Earth and so the huge distance makes them appear very slow. Also at times the comet is coming towards us or moving away from so and us might even appear stationary. Comets are generally visible for periods ranging from a few days to several months, and appear to change little in position night-after-night

Comets are sometimes called "dirty snowballs" because they are mixtures of ices and dust. The comets have a core or a nucleus, made up of mainly ice and dust, and is frozen solid. In this state they only reflects light and so are generally invisible in the far outreaches of the solar system, it is only when they approach the sun, do they become luminous. As comet nears the sun, the nucleus begins to warm up and some of the ice begins to evaporate, these gases carry dust particles along with them and create the coma, that envelope the nucleus in a cloud of gas and dust. The dust reflects still more light; while the gases absorb ultraviolet rays and begin to glow.

As they get closer to the sun, the comets develop tails of radiant material that stretches into millions of kilometers. The tail always faces away from the sun and is shaped by the solar winds as well as the radiation emitted by the sun. What is really interesting is that comets can sometimes split their tails; they can even have multiple tails and can even lose the tails at times.

Comets are divided into two types by the period of their orbit: short period comets complete their orbit in 200 or less years and long period comets take more than 200 years to orbit the Sun. Of the two types, short period comets have less elliptical orbits. Short period comets, like asteroids and meteoroids, are left over bits that were never incorporated into a planet during planet formation.

The Kuiper Belt, which is 30-100 AU from the Sun, is a reservoir of these short period comets. During the formation of the Solar System, the Kuiper belt was on the outer part of the pre-planetary disk. Since the part of the disk was less dense than the inner part, only small comets could be formed, not large outer planets.

Long period comets, which have very elliptical orbits, usually originate from the Oort Cloud. Occasionally, a star passes by the Oort Cloud and disturbs the orbits of the comets within it. Some of these comets change course and enter the Solar System.

Comets are composed of dust and ices. The ices contained by comets include water, methane, ammonia, and carbon dioxide. These ices are sublimed off the nucleus when the comet nears the Sun. A dust tail, which is the part of a comet easiest to see, forms from dust particles that are driven off the nucleus by escaping gases and plasma. An ion tail, which can be as long as 2 AU when the comet is near the Sun, forms from plasma that interacts with the solar wind. In addition, a coma forms around the nucleus. A coma is a large, bright cloud of gases and dust ejected from the nucleus.

Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites:

Meteors are small rocks, sometimes as fine as grains of sand. When these meteors enter the earth’s atmosphere, due to friction, they get heated up, and make the air around them glow. They last for only a few seconds before completely disintegrating and are commonly known as shooting stars. Some of them might be big enough to reach the earth’s surface and are called meteorites.

Meteors enter the Earth's atmosphere on a regular basis and on most nights you can see a few meteors per hour. During meteor showers, however, meteors are visible at a much higher rate. Meteor showers are usually associated with comets. Comets cast off debris when they near the Sun and when Earth passes through the debris; its sky displays astonishing meteor showers.

It is also assumed that early collisions between earth and comets resulted in the vast amounts of water that now make up 3/4th of the earth’s surface. It is only because of these waters that life on earth was possible, so in that sense we possibly owe all our waters and therefore our lives to these brilliant comets.

COMPUTERS

Inventors of the First Computer: (Atanasoff-Berry Computer"ABC")
In the mid-1930s, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State College named John Vincent Atanasoff began work on a machine capable of solving complex sets of linear algebraic equations. In doing so, he and his graduate-student assistant Clifford Berry explored many of the techniques and technologies that later became widely adopted in electronic computing: the use of binary arithmetic based on logical rather than counting principles; periodically regenerating rotating drum memory; the separation of memory and arithmetic units; the automatic coordination of operations through a centralized "clock." Although the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) was never fully completed, and Atanasoff himself soon moved on to other projects, the ABC nevertheless represented a pioneering milestone in the development of the modern computer.

CT SCANNING
(Computer Tomography) Medical & Industrial

Medical:

CT imaging uses special x-ray equipment to produce multiple images or pictures of the inside of the body and a computer to join them together in cross-sectional views of the area being studied. The images can then be examined on a computer monitor or printed.

CT scans of internal organs, bone, soft tissue and blood vessels provide greater clarity than conventional x-ray exams.

Using specialized equipment and expertise to create and interpret CT scans of the body, radiologists can more easily diagnose problems such as cancers, cardiovascular disease, infectious disease, trauma and musculoskeletal disorders.

Some common uses for CT imaging is:

one of the best tools for studying the chest and abdomen because it provides detailed, cross-sectional views of all types of tissue.
often the preferred method for diagnosing many different cancers, including lung, liver and pancreatic cancer, since the image allows a physician to confirm the presence of a tumor and measure its size, precise location and the extent of the tumor's involvement with other nearby tissue.
invaluable in diagnosing and treating spinal problems and injuries to the hands, feet and other skeletal structures because it can clearly show even very small bones as well as surrounding tissues such as muscle and blood vessels.
an examination that plays a significant role in the detection, diagnosis and treatment of vascular diseases that can lead to stroke, kidney failure or even death.

Physicians uses :

plan and properly administer radiation treatments for tumors
guide biopsies and other minimally invasive procedures
plan surgery
measure bone mineral density for the detection of osteoporosis
quickly identify injuries to the liver, spleen, kidneys or other internal organs in cases of trauma

How to protect yourself:

Before you ever subject yourself to a possible dangerous and unnecessary CT scan, consult your doctor. Recognize that scans often produce false positives, signaling problems where none exists. If your physician suggests you need a test involving radiation, ask about alternatives such as echocardiography (using high-frequency sound) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI, using strong magnetic fields). Neither subjects you to radiation. But neither is advanced enough to rival the power of X-rays to give your doctors a clear view inside your small vessels.

Fluoroscopies in particular are a major source of radiation today, because the beam stays on during the entire procedure, such as threading a catheter or endoscope. The total dose can easily be reduced, by using the fluoroscope only periodically, not continually. This certainly makes good sense for doctors and their patients; patient safety is vastly increased by reducing the amount of radiation the patients gets.

RADIATION YOU WILL RECEIVE FROM CARDIAC TESTS

The annual "background radiation" dose from cosmic rays and radioactive elements in the earth is effectively about the same (about 10 mSv) dose as what you get from one trip to a catheterization lab for invasive angiography. Catheterization lab tests use X-rays of a portion of the heart to reveal blockages in small arteries.

CT (computed tomography) angiography is non-invasive but exposes you to as much as twice the radiation you receive from invasive angiography. Computers create CT scan images from X-ray data.

Industrial Use:

nondestructive inspection (NDI), is testing that does not destroy the test object. NDE is vital for constructing and maintaining all types of components and structures. To detect different defects such as cracking and corrosion, there are different methods of testing available, such as X-ray (where cracks show up on the film) and ultrasound (where cracks show up as an echo blip on the screen). This article is aimed mainly at industrial NDT, but many of the methods described here can be used to test the human body. In fact methods from the medical field have often been adapted for industrial use, as was the case with Phased array ultrasonics and Computed radiography.

While destructive testing usually provides a more reliable assessment of the state of the test object, destruction of the test object usually makes this type of test more costly to the test object's owner than nondestructive testing. Destructive testing is also inappropriate in many circumstances, such as forensic investigation. That there is a tradeoff between the cost of the test and its reliability favors a strategy in which most test objects are inspected nondestructively; destructive testing is performed on a sampling of test objects that is drawn randomly for the purpose of characterizing the testing reliability of the nondestructive test.

Industrial Needs:

It is very difficult to weld or mold a solid object that has the risk of breaking in service, so testing at manufacture and during use is often essential. During the process of casting a metal object, for example, the metal may shrink as it cools, and crack or introduce voids inside the structure. Even the best welders (and welding machines) do not make 100% perfect welds. Some typical weld defects that need to be found and repaired are lack of fusion of the weld to the metal and porous bubbles inside the weld, both of which could cause a structure to break or a pipeline to rupture.

During their service lives, many industrial components need regular nondestructive tests to detect damage that may be difficult or expensive to find by everyday methods. For example:

aircraft skins need regular checking to detect cracks;
underground pipelines are subject to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking;
pipes in industrial plants may be subject to erosion and corrosion from the products they carry;
concrete structures may be weakened if the inner reinforcing steel is corroded;
pressure vessels may develop cracks in welds;
the wire ropes in suspension bridges are subject to weather, vibration, and high loads, so testing for broken wires and other damage is important.

Over the past centuries, swordsmiths, blacksmiths, and bell-makers would listen to the ring of the objects they were creating to get an indication of the soundness of the material. The wheel-tapper would test the wheels of locomotives for the presence of cracks, often caused by fatigue — a function that is now carried out by instrumentation and referred to as the acoustic impact technique.

CRACKING

(The Process of REFINING PETROLEUM)

Petroleum is a complex mixture of organic liquids called crude oil and natural gas, which occurs naturally in the ground and was formed millions of years ago, and every refinery begins with the separation of crude oil into different fractions by distillation.

These are processes that allow the production of "light" products such as LPG and gasoline from heavier crude oil distillation fractions such as gas oils and residues. Fluid catalytic cracking produces a high yield of gasoline and LPG, while hydrocracking is a major source of jet fuel, diesel, naphtha and LPG.

An oil refinery is an organized and coordinated arrangement of manufacturing processes designed to produce physical and chemical changes in crude oil to convert it into everyday products like gasoline, diesel, lubricating oil, fuel oil and bitumen.

As crude oil comes from the well it contains a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds and relatively small quantities of other materials such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, salt and water. In the refinery, most of these non - hydrocarbon substances are removed and the oil is broken down into its various components, and blended into useful products.

Natural gas from the well, while principally methane, contains quantities of other hydrocarbons - ethane, propane, butane, pentane and also carbon dioxide and water. These components are separated from the methane at a gas fractionation plant.

The three main hydrocarbon groups:

Paraffinic: These consist of straight or branched carbon rings saturated with hydrogen atoms, the simplest of which is methane ( $CH$ ₄) the main ingredient of natural gas

Naphthenic: These consist of carbon rings, sometimes with side chains, saturated with hydrogen atoms. Naphthenes are chemically stable, they occur naturally in crude oil and have properties similar to paraffin’s

Aromatic. These hydrocarbons are compounds that contain a ring of six carbon atoms with alternating double and single bonds and six attached hydrogen atoms. This type of structure is known as a benzene ring. They occur naturally in crude oil, and can also be created by the refining process

All About Atoms

DNA-RNA

The nucleic acids are very large molecules that have two main parts. The backbone of a nucleic acid is made of alternating sugar and phosphate molecules bonded together in a long chain

There are four different nucleodites bases which can occur in nucleic acid, each nucleic acid contains millions of bases bonded to it. The order in which these nucleotide bases appear in the nucleic acid is the coding for the information carried in the molecule. In other words, the nucleotide bases serve as a sort of genetic alphabet on which the structure of each protein in our bodies is encoded.

Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA:

DNA is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).

The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases:

adenine , cytosine, guanine , and thymine

Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and sentences.

The high molecular weight nucleic acid, DNA, is found chiefly in the nuclei of complex cells, known as eucaryotic cells, or in the nucleoid regions of procaryotic cells, such as bacteria. It is often associated with proteins that help to pack it in a usable fashion.

Not only is the DNA molecule double-stranded, but the two strands wrap around each other forming a coil, or helix. The true structure of the DNA molecule is a double helix. This unique double-stranded DNA molecule has the unique ability to make exact copies of itself, or self-replicate. When more DNA is required by an organism (such as during reproduction or cell growth) the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotide bases break and the two single strands of DNA separate. New complementary bases are brought in by the cell and paired up with each of the two separate strands, thus forming two new, identical, double-stranded DNA molecules.

RNA

In contrast RNA is of a lower molecular weight, and is much more abundant in nucleic acid, RNA, is distributed throughout the cell, most commonly in small numerous organelles called ribosomes.

Ribonucleic acid, or RNA, gets its name from the sugar group in the molecule's backbone - ribose. Several important similarities and differences exist between RNA and DNA. Like DNA, RNA has a sugar-phosphate backbone with nucleotide bases attached to it. Like DNA, RNA contains the bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), and guanine (G); however, RNA does not contain thymine, instead, RNA's fourth nucleotide is the base uracil (U). Unlike the double-stranded DNA molecule, RNA is a single-stranded molecule. RNA is the main genetic material used in the organisms called viruses, and RNA is also important in the production of proteins in other living organisms. RNA can move around the cells of living organisms and thus serves as a sort of genetic messenger, relaying the information stored in the cell's DNA out from the nucleus to other parts of the cell where it is used to help make proteins.

GENOMES

<>Life is specified by genomes. Every organism, including humans, has a genome that contains all of the biological information needed to build and maintain a living example of that organism. The biological information contained in a genome is encoded in its deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and is divided into discrete units called genes. Genes code for proteins that attach to the genome at the appropriate positions and switch on a series of reactions called gene expression.

The genome of an organism is a complete genetic sequence on one set of chromosomes; for example, one of the two sets that a diploid individual carries in every somatic cell. The term genome can be applied specifically to mean that stored on a complete set of nuclear DNA (i.e., the "nuclear genome") but can also be applied to that stored within organelles that contain their own DNA, as with the mitochondrial genome or the chloroplast genome. When people say that the genome of a sexually reproducing species has been "sequenced," typically they are referring to a determination of the sequences of one set of autosomes and one of each type of sex chromosome, which together represent both of the possible sexes. Even in species that exist in only one sex, what is described as "a genome sequence" may be a composite read from the chromosomes of various individuals? In general use, the phrase "genetic makeup" is sometimes used conversationally to mean the genome of a particular individual or organism. The study of the global properties of genomes of related organisms is usually referred to as genomics, which distinguishes it from genetics which generally studies the properties of single genes or groups of genes.

DOPPLER EFFECT

Named after Austrian physicist Christian Doppler

We have all experienced it, most commonly it is heard when one is at a train crossing, as the train horn is sounded, or one hears it when a siren or horn approaches, passes, and recedes from an observer. The received frequency is higher (compared to the emitted frequency) during the approach, it is identical at the instant of passing by, and it is lower during the recession.

The Doppler represents the shift in frequency and wavelength of waves which results from a source moving with respect to the medium, a receiver moving with respect to the medium, or even a moving medium.

The perceived frequency (f ´) is related to the actual frequency (f₀) and the relative speeds of the source (v_s), observer (v_o), and the speed (v) of waves in the medium.

The choice of using the plus (+) or minus (-) sign is made according to the convention that if the source and observer are moving towards each other the perceived frequency (f ´) is higher than the actual frequency (f₀). Likewise, if the source and observer are moving away from each other the perceived frequency (f ´) is lower than the actual frequency (f₀). For waves that propagate in a medium, such as sound waves, the velocity of the observer and of the source are relative to the medium in which the waves are transmitted. The total Doppler effect may therefore result from motion of the source, motion of the observer, or motion of the medium. Each of these effects is analyzed separately. For waves which do not require a medium, such as light or gravity in general relativity, only the relative difference in velocity between the observer and the source needs to be considered.

Although first discovered for sound waves, the Doppler effect holds true for all types of waves including light (and other electromagnetic waves). The Doppler effect for light waves is usually described in terms of colors rather than frequency.

The Doppler effect for electromagnetic waves such as light is of great use in astronomy results in either a so-called redshift or blue shift. It has been used to measure the speed at which stars and galaxies are approaching or receding from us, that is, the radial velocity. This is used to detect if an apparently single star is, in reality, a close binary and even to measure the rotational speed of stars and galaxies.

The use of the Doppler effect for light in astronomy depends on our knowledge that the spectra of stars are not continuous.

They exhibit absorption lines at well defined frequencies that are correlated with the energies required to excite electrons in different elements from one level to another. The Doppler effect is recognizable in the fact that the absorption lines are not always at the frequencies that are obtained from the spectrum of a stationary light source. Since blue light has a higher frequency than red light, the spectral lines of an approaching astronomical light source exhibit a blue shift and those of a receding astronomical light source exhibit a redshift.

The Doppler effect is used in some types of radar, to measure the velocity of detected objects. A radar beam is fired at a moving target — e.g. a motor car, as police use radar to detect speeding motorists — as it approaches or recedes from the radar source. Each successive radar wave has to travel farther to reach the car, before being reflected and re-detected near the source. As each wave has to move farther, the gap between each wave increases, increasing the wavelength. In some situations, the radar beam is fired at the moving car as it approaches, in which case each successive wave travels a lesser distance, decreasing the wavelength

DIMENSIONS

(Three)
That there are three dimensions seems to be an irrefutable fact. Fact is, we can only move up or down, left or right, in or out, but the Randall-Sundrum "braneworld" gravity type II model theory holds that the visible universe is a membrane (hence "braneworld") embedded within a larger universe, much like a strand of filmy seaweed floating in the ocean. The "braneworld universe" has five dimensions -- four spatial dimensions plus time -- compared with the four dimensions -- three spatial, plus time -- laid out in the General Theory of Relativity.

(Four)
If the braneworld theory proves to be true, "this would upset the applecart,"according to Arlie O. Petters of Duke. "It would confirm that there is a fourth dimension to space, which would create a philosophical shift in our understanding of the natural world."

The scientists' findings appeared May 24, 2006, in the online edition of the journal Physical Review D. Keeton is an astronomy and physics professor at Rutgers, and Petters is a mathematics and physics professor at Duke. Their research is funded by the National Science Foundation.

The Randall-Sundrum braneworld model -- named for its originators, physicists Lisa Randall of Harvard University and Raman Sundrum of Johns Hopkins University -- provides a mathematical description of how gravity shapes the universe that differs from the description offered by the General Theory of Relativity.

Keeton and Petters focused on one particular gravitational consequence of the braneworld theory that distinguishes it from Einstein's theory.

The braneworld theory predicts that relatively small "black holes" created in the early universe have survived to the present. The black holes, with mass similar to a tiny asteroid, would be part of the "dark matter" in the universe. As the name suggests, dark matter does not emit or reflect light, but does exert a gravitational force.

The General Theory of Relativity, on the other hand, predicts that such primordial black holes no longer exist, as they would have evaporated by now.

"When we estimated how far braneworld black holes might be from Earth, we were surprised to find that the nearest ones would lie well inside Pluto's orbit," Keeton said.

Petters added, "If braneworld black holes form even 1 percent of the dark matter in our part of the galaxy -- a cautious assumption -- there should be several thousand braneworld black holes in our solar system."

But do braneworld black holes really exist -- and therefore stand as evidence for the 5-D braneworld theory?

The scientists showed that it should be possible to answer this question by observing the effects that braneworld black holes would exert on electromagnetic radiation traveling to Earth from other galaxies. Any such radiation passing near a black hole will be acted upon by the object's tremendous gravitational forces -- an effect called "gravitational lensing."

"A good place to look for gravitational lensing by braneworld black holes is in bursts of gamma rays coming to Earth," Keeton said. These gamma-ray bursts are thought to be produced by enormous explosions throughout the universe. Such bursts from outer space were discovered inadvertently by the U.S. Air Force in the 1960s.

Keeton and Petters calculated that braneworld black holes would impede the gamma rays in the same way a rock in a pond obstructs passing ripples. The rock produces an "interference pattern" in its wake in which some ripple peaks are higher, some troughs are deeper, and some peaks and troughs cancel each other out. The interference pattern bears the signature of the characteristics of both the rock and the water.

Similarly, a braneworld black hole would produce an interference pattern in a passing burst of gamma rays as they travel to Earth, said Keeton and Petters. The scientists predicted the resulting bright and dark "fringes" in the interference pattern, which they said provides a means of inferring characteristics of braneworld black holes and, in turn, of space and time.

"We discovered that the signature of a fourth dimension of space appears in the interference patterns," Petters said. "This extra spatial dimension creates a contraction between the fringes compared to what you'd get in General Relativity."

Petters and Keeton said it should be possible to measure the predicted gamma-ray fringe patterns using the Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope, which is scheduled to be launched on a spacecraft in August 2007. The telescope is a joint effort between NASA, the U.S. Department of Energy, and institutions in France, Germany, Japan, Italy and Sweden.

The scientists said their prediction would apply to all braneworld black holes, whether in our solar system or beyond.

"If the braneworld theory is correct," they said, "there should be many, many more braneworld black holes throughout the universe, each carrying the signature of a fourth dimension of space."

Source: Duke University

(Fifth)

Abstract five-dimensional space occurs frequently in mathematics, and is a perfectly legitimate construct. Whether or not the real universe in which we live is somehow five-dimensional is a topic that is debated and explored in several branches of physics, including astrophysics and particle physics.

Dimensions. Some scientists have speculated that the In physics, the Fifth dimension is a hypothetical extra dimension beyond the usual three spatial and one timegraviton, a particle thought to carry the force of gravity, may "leak" into the fifth or higher dimensions which would explain how gravity is significantly weaker than the other three fundamental forces.

In 2006 and alternate theory was proposed by Martin Davies, which states that judging by the 3 spatial dimensions, and their counterpart, time, which allows movement around the 3 spatial dimensions, the 5th, 6th or a higher, dimension may be a 'time travel dimension' allowing the traversal of time.

(More)
According to P. D. Ouspensky, In Search of the Miraculous: "Every moment of time contains a certain number of possibilities, at times a small number, at others a great number, but never an infinite number. It is necessary to realize that there are possibilities and impossibilities. I can take from this table and throw on the floor a piece of paper, a pencil, or an ash-tray, but I cannot take from the table and throw on the floor an orange which is not on the table. This clearly defines the difference between possibility and impossibility. There are several combinations of possibilities in relation to things which can be thrown on the floor from this table. I can throw a pencil, or a piece of paper, or an ashtray, or else a pencil and a piece of paper, or a pencil and an ashtray, or a piece of paper and an ash-tray, or all three together, or nothing at all. There are only these possibilities. If we take as a moment of time the moment when these possibilities exist, then the next moment will be a moment of the actualization of one of these possibilities. A pencil is thrown on the floor. This is the actualization of one of the possibilities. Then a new moment comes. This moment also has a certain number of possibilities in a certain definite sense. And the moment after it will again be a moment of the actualization of one of these possibilities [...] But all the possibilities that have been created or have originated in the world must be actualized [...] The sixth dimension is the line of the actualization of all possibilities."

QT. Geology is named after Gaea, the daughter of Chaos.

Did you know that there is no evidence in fossil sediments of Homo Sapiens beyond the last Ice Age?

GEOLOGIC TIME TABLE

Eon	Era	Period	Epoch	Age at Start
Phanerozoic	Cenozoic	Quaternary	Holocene	10,000 yrs. Before present.
		Quaternary	Pleistocene (first modern man)	2 mil. bp
		Tertiary	Pliocene (first man)	5 mil bp
			Miocene	24 mil. bp
			Oligocene	37 mil bp
			Eocene	58 mil bp
			Paleocene (first horses)	65 mil bp/extinction of the dinosaurs
	Mesozoic	Cretaceous (beginning of the end of dinosaurs)		144 mil bp
		Jurassic (first birds)		208 mil bp
		Triassic (Dinosaurs & Mammals)		245 mil bp
	Paleozoic	Permian (extinction of Trilobites)		286 mil bp
		Pennsylvanian (coniferous plants)		320 mil bp
		Mississippian (first reptiles)		360 mil bp
		Devonian (first Amphibians)		408 mil bp
		Silurian (land plants)		438 mil bp
		Ordovician (Millipedes)		505 mil bp
		Cambrian (first fisher)		570 mil bp
Precambrian	Proterozoic			2,500 mil bp
	Archean			3,800 mil bp
	Hadean			4,600 mil. bp + OR - 70,000 yrs.

PLANET EARTH

"Terra"

The Planet Earth is 4.600 Billion Years old, + or - 70 million years. (although no physical evidence of age beyond 3.5 billion years has been discovered)
Life began on the Planet 135 millions before the present (BP) at the end of the last Big Freeze.

The tilt of axis (degrees) is 23.45

Earth travels at the speed of 108,000 kilometers (67,000 miles) an hour.

Earth is the 3rd planet from the Sun at a distance of about 150 million kilometers (93.2 million miles). It takes 365.256 days for the Earth to travel around the Sun and 23.9345 hours for the Earth rotate a complete revolution. It has a diameter of 12,756 kilometers (7,973 miles), Earth’s atmosphere is composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and 1 percent other constituents.

Earth is the only planet in the solar system known to harbor life. Our planet's rapid spin and molten nickel-iron core give rise to an extensive magnetic field, which, along with the atmosphere, shields us from nearly all of the harmful radiation coming from the Sun and other stars. Earth's atmosphere protects us from meteors, most of which burn up before they can strike the surface.

There is geological evidence to suggest that the geophysical poles of the earth have shifted many times in the past. These previous pole shifts explain some of the mystery surrounding such past events as the sudden extinction of the dinosaurs, or the sudden changes in global climate. There is no clear evidence that these were all caused by asteroid collision. These things reflect changes as the result of periodic pole shifts brought on by disturbances within the earth as caused by disturbances in the sun.

The core of the earth is nearly as hot as the sun. Magma convection currents rise from the Earth' center towards the surface and sink again as they cool. The core of the earth having a smaller diameter spins faster than the exterior of the globe. This causes a twisting of the soft magma as it spirals out from the center to the surface. This twisting spiral surrounding a spinning iron core acts as an electric dynamo. Massive voltages of electric current are generated and flow between positive and negative poles. The magnetic field that surrounds the earth is produced by the electric current flowing within the planet

Dating the Earth::

The use of Radioactive or radiometric dating

- Isotopes measure Nuclei decay/ half life’s.

If you know the half-life of a given radioactive element, you can in principle use the decay of that radionuclide as a clock to measuer a time interval. This clock, however, doesn't go 1, 2, 3, ... in fact it goes more like 1, 2, 4, 8, ... The decay of very long-lived nuclides, can be used to measure the age of rocks, that is, the time that has elapsed since they were formed. Measurements for rocks from the Earth and the moon yield a consistent age of about 4.5 X 10⁹ years.

For measuring shorter time intervals, in the range of historical interest, radiocarbon dating has proved invaluable. The radionuclide Carbon (with half-life of 5730 years) is produced at a constant rate in the upper atmosphere. This radiocarbon mixes with the carbon that is normally present in the atmosphere so that there is about one atom of Carbon for every 10¹³ atoms of ordinary Carbon. The atmospheric carbon exchanges with the carbon in every living thing on Earth, including humans, so that all living things contain a small fixed fraction of the Carbon nuclide.

This exchange persists as long as the organism is alive. After the organism dies, the exchange with the atmosphere stops and the amount of radiocarbon trapped in the organism, since it is no longer being replenished, dwindles away with a half-life of 5730 years. By measuring the amount of radiocarbon per gram of organic matter, it is possible to measure the time that has elapsed since the organism died.

-Carbon 14 is formed as nirogen bomarded by cosmic rays. It only measures organic material younger than 70,000 years.

How Old is it?

TREES: Tree Rings 'Growth Rings' l per year. The rings also reflect the seasonal changes by the size of the rings. The Bristlecone Pines of the Southwest and Eastern California date back thousands of years.

SOIL: Varves. annual sediment layers, also reflect seasonal changes and, therefore, record time. The best-known varves are those laid down in lake formed by the damming of glacial melt-water. Each varve consists of a lighter, thicker, coarser summer layer and a darker, thinner, finer layer deposited during ice-covered periods. You simply count the couplets of beds for the span of a lake's existence. Varve counts of glacial lake sediments that relate to the last glaciations give values of about 15,000 years; those of certain older, nonglacial lakes give their duration as a few million years.

The Continents :
Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America

The Deserts of our World:
Arabian - covering most of the Arabian peninsula.
Atacama - running down the western coast of South America.
Australian - hot deserts covering much of western and central Australia.
Iranian - northeast of the Arabian peninsula and west of the Thar desert.
Kalahari - covering much of the southeastern tip of Africa.
Namib - running down the southwestern coast Africa.
North American - in southwestern North America, pin the USA and Mexico.
Patagonian - in southeastern South America.
Saharan - a huge desert covering much of northern Africa.
Takla Makan-Gobi - in eastern China.
Thar - in northwest India.
Turkestan - in southern Russia .

The different Eras are marked by major life extinctions in the fossil records, including the famous demise of the dinosaurs at the Mesozoic-Cenozoic boundary, as well as an even larger extinction of marine life at the Paleozoic-Mesozoic boundary. The beginning of the Paleozoic was defined as the occurrence of the first hard-shelled fossils

The oldest rocks on Earth come from Australia (actually, mineral grains contained in a younger quartzite), with ages as old as 4,400 mil. The oldest significant exposures of very old rocks are found in Greenland, at 3,850 mil.

Geologic Era	Characteristic Life
Cenozoic ('late life")	Mammals
Mesozoic ("middle life")	Reptiles, dinosaurs
Paleozoic ("early life")	Invertebrate Marine life (clams, etc.), amphibians, first land plants
Precambrian (time before the Cambrian, the first geologic period with hard-shelled fossils)	No hard-shelled fossils

Big, Really Big!!

The Pacific Ocean covers almost one half of the Earth's surface. Approximately 90 million years from now, the Atlantic Ocean will be larger as the Pacific is shrinking approximately 2" per year.

Water is the color blue, because it is a reflection of the sky.

The Oceans of our World:

Arctic Ocean:
The earth’s northern most cap. With an area of 12 million square kilometers (5 million square miles), the Arctic Ocean is the smallest ocean - more than five times smaller than the Indian and Atlantic oceans.

Atlantic Ocean:
Is a passive margin ocean with most of its geological activity centered along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Most of its coastal regions are low and geologically quiet. The Atlantic’s major marginal seas include the Mediterranean Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, Hudson Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. The Atlantic covers an area of 82 million square kilometers (32 million square miles). It has an average depth of 3,600 meters (11,812 feet). Its greatest depth is in the Puerto Rico Trench at 8,605 meters (28,231 feet).

Indian Ocean:
The Indian Ocean covers an area of about 73 million square kilometers (about 28 million square miles) - about 20 percent of the total area covered by the world's oceans. The average depth of the Indian Ocean is 3,890 meters (12,762 feet). Its deepest point is the Java trench, at 7,725 m.

Pacific Ocean:
Is the world's largest geographic feature, the Pacific Ocean covers more than 166 million square kilometers (more than 64 million square miles)—about one-third of the earth's surface. The area of the Pacific is greater than that of all of the continents combined, and it makes up nearly half of the area covered by the earth's oceans.

Southern Ocean:
As of 2000, This body of water that lies between 60 degrees south latitude and the Antarctica coastline. The Southern Ocean has the unique distinction of being a large circumpolar body of water totally encircling the continent of Antarctica. This ring of water lies between 60 degrees south latitude and the coast of Antarctica, and encompasses 360 degrees of longitude. The Southern Ocean is now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the Arctic Ocean).

Our Largest Mountains:

The worlds "largest mountain" is in Hawaii Mauna Loa Volcano The worlds "tallest mountain" in Mt. Everest--this mountain is located on the Nepal and Tibet borders in China

- Mt. Everest is located in Nepal-China, in the Himalaya Range. It is 8,850 meters in elevation. (the tallest point on the earth’s surface.

-Chimorazo is located in Ecuador, in the Andes Range. It is 6.310 meters in elevation.

-Mauna Kea located on the Hawaiian Islands chain in the United States. It is 4,205 meters in elevation. It
is the tallest mountain on Earth as measured from base to summit, with a total height of 10,203 meters. The base of Mauna Kea on the floor of the Pacific Ocean is 5,998 meters below mean sea level and its summit is 4,205 meters above mean sea level.

-Mauna Loa is located on the Hawaiian Islands chain in the United States. It is 4,169 meters in elevation. It also holds the record as the most voluminous mountain on Earth.

10 Highest Mountain Peaks:

Rank	Peak	Range	Region	Elevation
1	Mount Everest	Himalaya	Nepal & Tibet 1	8,850 m
2	K2	Karakoram	Kashmir 2	8,611 m
3	Kanchenjunga	Himalaya	India & Nepal	8,586 m
4	Lhotse I	Himalaya	Nepal & Tibet 1	8,516 m
5	Makalu I	Himalaya	Nepal & Tibet 1	8,463 m
6	Cho Oyu	Himalaya	Nepal & Tibet 1	8,201 m
7	Dhaulagiri	Himalaya	Nepal	8,167 m
8	Manaslu I	Himalaya	Nepal	8,163 m
9	Nanga Parbat	Himalaya	Kashmir 3	8,125 m
10	Annapurna I	Himalaya	Nepal	8,091 m

Six Highest Mountain Ranges:

*Rank*	*Range*	*Countries*	*Highest peak*	*Elevation*
1	Himalaya	Nepal China1 India Bhutan Pakistan	Mount Everest	8,850 m
2	Karakoram	Pakistan India China1	K2	8,611 m
3	Kunlun Shan	China1	Kongkoerh	7,719 m
4	Hindu Kush	Pakistan Afghanistan	Tirich Mir	7,690 m
5	Hengduan Shan	China1	Gongga Shan	7,556 m
6	Pamirs	Tajikistan Afghanistan China1	Pik Ismail Samani	7,495 m

Note: The largest mountain range on the Planet Earth is 46,600 miles long, including its many branches, and almost all of it resides below the ocean's, some of the peaks rising 9,800 feet (3,000 km). Science was unaware of their existence until the1950's.

15 Largest Rivers:

-Nile: Africa. 6,690 km in length, Flows into the Mediterranean Sea.

-Amazon: South America. 6,290 km in length. Flows into the Atlantic Ocean

-Chang Jiang: Eurasia/China. 5,797 km in length. Flows into the East China Sea.

-Huang He: Eurasia/China. 4,667 in length. Flows into the Yellow Sea (Bo Hai).

-Yenisey: Eurasia/Russia. 4,506 km in length. Flows into the Artic Ocean

-Irtysh: Eurasia/Russia. 4,438 km in length. Flows into the Ob' River.

-Congo: Africa. 4,371 km in length. Flows into the Atlantic Ocean.

-Amur (Heilong): Eurasia. 4,352 km in length. Flows into the Tatar Strait.

-Lena: Eurasia/Russia. 4,268 km in length. Flows into the Artic Ocean

-Mackenzie: North America. 4,241 km in length. Flows into the Beaufort Sea.

-Niger: Africa. 4,184 km in length. Flows into the Gulf of Guinea.

-Mekong: Eurasia. 4,023 km in length. Flows into the South China Sea.

-Mississippi: North America. 3,779 km in length. Flows into the Gulf of Mexico.

-Missouri: North America. 3,726 km in length. Flows into the (Tributary of the) Mississippi.

-Volga: Eurasia/Russia. 3,687 km in length. Flows into the Caspian Sea.

The Largest Inland Seas & Lakes:

-The Adriatic Sea is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula. The Adriatic Sea is a part of the Mediterranean Sea.

The western coast is Italian, while the eastern coast runs mostly along Croatia, but lesser parts belong to Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania. Major rivers joining the Adriatic are the Reno, Po, Adige, Brenta, Piave, Soča (Isonzo), Neretva. The Adriatic Sea is situated largely between the eastern coast of Italy and Croatia.

The Adriatic extends northwest from 40° to 45° 45' N., with an extreme length of about 770 km. The northern part of the Adriati sea is very shallow, and between the southern promontories of Istria and Rimini the depth rarely exceeds 46 meters. Between Šibenik and Ortona a well-marked depression occurs, a considerable area of which exceeds 180 m in depth.

From a point between Korčula and the north shore of the spur of Monte Gargano there is a ridge giving shallower water, and a broken chain of a few islets extends across the sea.

The deepest part of the sea lies east of Monte Gargano, south of Dubrovnik, and west of Durrës where a large basin gives depths of 900 m and upwards, and a small area in the south of this basin falls below 1,460 m. The mean depth of the sea is estimated at 240 m.

-Caspian Sea, Asia The Caspian Sea is the largest lake on Earth with a surface area of 371,000 square kilometers (143,244 mi) and a volume of 78,200 cubic kilometers (18,761 mi). It is a landlocked endorheic body of water and lies between Russia and Iran. It has a maximum depth of about 1025 meters (3,363 ft). It is called a sea because when the Romans first arrived there, they tasted the water and found it to be salty. It has a salinity of approximately 1.2%, about a third the salinity of most water from the ocean.	371,000 sq km/143,000 sq mi
-Lake Superior, North America It is the largest of the five Great Lakes of North America. It is bounded to the north by Ontario, Canada and Minnesota, USA, and to the south by the U.S. states of Wisconsin and Michigan. It is the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area and is the world's third-largest freshwater lake by volume	82,100 sq km/31,700 sq mi
-Lake Victoria, Africa Lake Victoria, the second largest freshwater lake in the world, is a shallow water lake formed as a result of a geographical system known as warping, stretches to the three East African countries of Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania.	69,490 sq km/26,830 sq mi
-Lake Huron, North America Is the second-largest of the Great Lakes, with a surface area of 23,010 square miles (59,596 km) making it the third largest fresh water lake on earth (4th largest lake if the saline Caspian Sea is included). It contains a volume of 850 cubic miles (3,540 km³), and a shoreline length of 3,827 miles (6,157 km). The surface of lake Huron is 577 feet (176 m) above sea level	59,596 sq km/23,010 sq mi
-Lake Michigan, North America It has a surface area of 22,400 square miles (58,016 km) making it the largest freshwater lake in the U.S., the largest lake entirely within one country by surface area (Lk. Baikal in Russia, is larger by water volume), and the fifth largest lake in the world. It is 307 miles (494 km) long by 118 miles (190 km) wide with a shoreline 1,640 miles (2,633 km) long. The lake's average depth is 279 feet (85 m),	57,800 sq km/22,300 sq mi
-Lake Tanganyika, Africa It is estimated to be the second largest freshwater lake in the world by volume, and the second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. The lake is divided between four countries – Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Tanzania and Zambia	32,900 sq km/12,700 sq mi
-Great Bear Lake, North America The third largest in North America, and the seventh largest in the world. The lake is situated on the Arctic Circle 186 m (610 ft) above sea level. The lake has a surface area of 31,153 km (12,028 mi) and a total volume of 2,236 km (536 mi). Its maximum depth is 446 m (1,463 ft) and its average depth 71.7 m (235 ft). The total shoreline is 2,719 km (1,690 mi) and the total catchment area of the lake is 114,717 km (44,293 mi). The lake empties through the Great Bear River (Sahtúdé) into the Mackenzie River.	31,153 sq km/12,028 sq mi
-Lake Baikal, Asia/Russia (The Pearl of Siberia) Lake Baikal is the largest freshwater lake by volume of water. It is also the deepest lake in the world with a maximum depth of 1,637 m (5,371 ft). It is estimated to contain approximately one-fifth of all the earth's fresh surface water. The lake has an area of 31,500 sq km (12,200 sq mi) and about 1,963 km (about 1,220 mi) of shoreline, making it the third largest lake in Asia, as well as the continent’s largest freshwater lake in terms of surface area. The crescent-shaped lake is 636 km (395 mi) long and varies in width from about 14 to 80 km (about 9 to 50 mi).	31,500 sq km/12,200 sq mi
-Great Slave Lake, North America The second largest lake, 10,980 sq mi (28,400 sq km), Northwest Territories, named for the Slave (Dogrib), a tribe of Native Americans. It is 300 mi (480 km) long and from 12 to 68 mi (19–109 km) wide and is the deepest lake (2,015 ft/614 m) of North America. The Hay and Slave rivers are its chief tributaries; it is drained by the Mackenzie River	28,400 sq km/10,980 sq mi

EARTHQUAKES

RICHTER SCALE A measurement of an earthquake's intensity. Each one-point increase on the scale indicates ten times the amount of shaking and 33 times the amount of energy.
Magnitude	Description
< 3.0	Very Minor Earthquake
3 - 3.9	Minor Earthquake
4 - 4.9	Light Earthquake
5 - 5.9	Moderate Earthquake
6 - 6.9	Strong Earthquake
7 - 7.9	Major Earthquake
8 and higher	Great Earthquake

-SEISMIC WAVES (Seismology) -The energy created by the quake travels in waves from the epicenter, where they are the strongest. The waves shake buildings, structures and the earth vertically, causing them to move horizontally! The waves are the energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion. There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can travel through the earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples on water. Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves. Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the surface waves emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves.

The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station. The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull the air. Have you ever heard a big clap of thunder and heard the windows rattle at the same time? The windows rattle because the sound waves were pushing and pulling on the window glass much like P waves push and pull on rock. Sometimes animals can hear the P waves of an earthquake. Dogs, for instance, commonly begin barking hysterically just before an earthquake 'hits' (or more specifically, before the surface waves arrive). Usually people can only feel the bump and rattle of these waves.

P waves are also known as compressional waves, because of the pushing and pulling they do. Subjected to a P wave, particles move in the same direction that the wave is moving in, which is the direction that the energy is traveling in, and is sometimes called the 'direction of wave propagation'.

The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid medium. It is this property of S waves that led seismologists to conclude that the Earth's outer core is a liquid. S waves move rock particles up and down, or side-to-side--perpindicular to the direction that the wave is traveling in (the direction of wave propagation).

Travelling only through the crust, surface waves are of a lower frequency than body waves, and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result. Though they arrive after body waves, it is surface waves that are almost enitrely responsible for the damage and destruction associated with earthquakes. This damage and the strength of the surface waves are reduced in deeper earthquakes. Two other types, one being the Rayleigh wave, which rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other waves. The other the Love wave, it is the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Confined to the surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.

-The Epicenter of an earthquake is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus. The location of an earthquake is commonly described by the geographic position of its epicenter and by its focal depth.
The focal depth of an earthquake is the depth from the Earth's surface to the region where an earthquake's energy originates (the focus). Earthquakes with focal depths from the surface to about 70 kilometers (43.5 miles) are classified as shallow. Earthquakes with focal depths from 70 to 300 kilometers (43.5 to 186 miles) are classified as intermediate. The focus of deep earthquakes may reach depths of more than 700 kilometers (435 miles). The focuses of most earthquakes are concentrated in the crust and upper mantle. The depth to the center of the Earth's core is about 6,370 kilometers (3,960 miles).

An Earthquake is the vibration, sometimes violent, of the Earth's surface that follows a release of energy in the Earth's crust. This energy can be generated by a sudden dislocation of segments of the crust, by a volcanic eruption, or event by manmade explosions. Most destructive quakes, however, are caused by dislocations of the crust. There are about 20 plates along the surface of the earth that move continuously and slowly past each other. When the plates squeeze or stretch, huge rocks form at their edges and the rocks shift with great force, causing an earthquake. When the force is large enough, the crust is forced to break. When the break occurs, the stress is released as energy which moves through the Earth in the form of waves, which we feel and call an earthquake.

The crust may first bend and then, when the stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, break and "snap" to a new position. In the process of breaking, vibrations called "seismic waves" are generated. These waves travel outward from the source of the earthquake along the surface and through the Earth at varying speeds depending on the material through which they move. Some of the vibrations are of high enough frequency to be audible, while others are of very low frequency. These vibrations cause the entire planet to quiver or ring like a bell or tuning fork.

faults
A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks to move relative to each other. This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an earthquake - or may occur slowly, in the form of creep. Faults may range in length from a few millimeters to thousands of kilometers. Most faults produce repeated displacements over geologic time. Faults are divided into three main groups, depending on how they move.

-Normal or Reverse faults
During an earthquake, the rock on one side of the fault suddenly slips with respect to the other. The fault surface can be horizontal or vertical or some arbitrary angle in between. Earth scientists use the angle of the fault with respect to the surface (known as the dip) and the direction of slip along the fault to classify faults. Faults which move along the direction of the dip plane are dip-slip faults and described as either normal or reverse, depending on their motion, occurring in response to pulling or tension; the overlying block moves down the dip of the fault plane.

-Thrust (reverse) faults occur in response to squeezing or compression; the overlying block moves up the dip of the fault plane. A dip-slip fault in which the upper block, above the fault plane, moves up and over the lower block. This type of faulting is common in areas of compression, such as regions where one plate is being subducted under another. When the dip angle is shallow, a reverse fault is often described as a thrust fault.

-Strike-slip (lateral) faults occur in response to either type of stress; the blocks move horizontally past one another. Most faulting along spreading zones is normal, along subduction zones is thrust, and along transform faults is strike-slip.Faults which move horizontally are known as strike-slip faults and are classified as either right-lateral (A strike-slip fault on which the displacement of the far block is to the right when viewed from either side. The San Andreas Fault is an example of a right lateral fault.) or left-lateral (A strike-slip fault on which the displacement of the far block is to the left when viewed from either side).

Geologists have found that earthquakes tend to reoccur along faults, which reflect zones of weakness in the Earth's crust. Even if a fault zone has recently experienced an earthquake, however, there is no guarantee that all the stress has been relieved. Another earthquake could still occur. In *New Madrid (this earthquake measured 8.0, the strongest earthquake ever recorded in the contiguous United States). a great earthquake was followed by a large aftershock within 6 hours on December 6, 1811. Furthermore, relieving stress along one part of the fault may increase stress in another part; the New Madrid earthquakes in January and February 1812 may have resulted from this phenomenon.

Liquefaction occurs when the strength and stiffness of a soil is reduced by earthquake shaking or other rapid loading. *Liquefaction and related phenomena have been responsible for tremendous amounts of damage in historical earthquakes around the world. Liquefaction occurs in saturated soils, that is, soils in which the space between individual particles is completely filled with water. This water exerts a pressure on the soil particles that influences how tightly the particles themselves are pressed together. Prior to an earthquake, the water pressure is relatively low. However, earthquake shaking can cause the water pressure to increase to the point where the soil particles can readily move with respect to each other, which happens when loosely packed, water-logged sediments lose their strength in response to strong shaking, causes major damage during earthquakes.

Typical effects of liquefaction include:

Loss of bearing strength –the ground can liquefy and lose its ability to support structures.

Lateral spreading - the ground can slide down very gentle slopes or toward stream banks riding on a buried liquefied layer.

Sand boils - sand-laden water can be ejected from a buried liquefied layer and erupt at the surface to form sand volcanoes; the surrounding ground often fractures and settles.

Flow failures — earth moves down steep slope with large displacement and much internal disruption of material.

Ground oscillation — the surface layer, riding on a buried liquefied layer, is thrown back and forth by the shaking and can be severely deformed.

Flotation — light structures that are buried in the ground (like pipelines, sewers and nearly empty fuel tanks) can float to the surface when they are surrounded by liquefied soil.

Settlement — when liquefied ground re-consolidates following an earthquake, the ground surface may settle or subside as shaking decreases and the underlying liquefied soil

*Quicksand: (Quicksand forms when uprising water reduces the friction between sand particles, causing the sand to become "Quick") It is actually solid ground that has been liquefied by a saturation of water. The "quick" refers to how easily the sand shifts when in this semiliquid state.

-Flowing underground water - The force of the upward water flow opposes the force of gravity, causing the granules of sand to be more buoyant.

-Earthquakes - The force of the shaking ground can increase the pressure of shallow groundwater, which liquefies sand and silt deposits. The liquefied surface loses strength, causing buildings or other objects on that surface to sink or fall over.

Quicksand is not a unique type of soil; it is usually just sand or another type of grainy soil. Quicksand is nothing more than a soupy mixture of sand and water. It can occur anywhere under the right conditions.

Quicksand is created when water saturates an area of loose sand and the ordinary sand is agitated. When the water trapped in the batch of sand can't escape, it creates liquefied soil that can no longer support weight. There are two ways in which sand can become agitated enough to create quicksand:

The vibration plus the water barrier reduces the friction between the sand particles and causes the sand to behave like a liquid. To understand quicksand, you have to understand the process of liquefaction. When soil liquefies, as with quicksand, it loses strength and behaves like a viscous liquid rather than a solid. Liquefaction can cause buildings to sink significantly during earthquakes.

While quicksand can occur in almost any location where water is present, there are certain locations where it's more prevalent. Places where quicksand is most likely to occur include: On beaches, Lakes shorelines, Marshes, Riverbanks and near springs.

If you step into quicksand, you will not be sucked down. However, your movements will cause you to dig yourself deeper into it. When you do make contact with quicksand, the more you struggle in it, the faster you sink. If you relax, your body will float in it because your body is less dense. Further, quicksand is typically inches deep and occasionally a few feet ( but not always).

Quicksand has a density of about 125 pounds per cubic foot, which means you can float more easily on quicksand than on water. The key is to not panic. Most people who drown in quicksand are usually those who panic and begin flailing their arms and legs.

It may be possible to drown in quicksand if you were to fall in over your head and couldn't get your head back above the surface, although it's rare for quicksand to be that deep. Most likely, if you fall in, you will float to the surface. However, the sand-to-water ratio of quicksand can vary, causing some quicksand to be less buoyant. When you try pulling your leg out of quicksand or mud for that matter, you are working against a vacuum left behind by the movement,

The best thing to do is to make slow movements and bring yourself to the surface, then just lie on your back, paddle slowly with your arms stretched out wide, and if possible heading for the edge.

Landslides, some triggered by earthquakes often cause more destruction than the earthquakes themselves. A common theme is the role of topographic amplification in landslide triggering (this is the way in which earthquake waves interact with slopes to cause higher levels of ground shaking, which in turn triggers slope failures).

Expansion of urban and recreational developments into hillside areas leads to more people that are threatened by landslides each year. Landslides commonly occur in connection with other major natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanoes, wildfires, and floods.

The hazard from landslides can be reduced by avoiding construction on steep slopes and existing landslides, or by stabilizing the slopes. Stability increases when ground water is prevented from rising in the landslide mass by;covering the landslide with an impermeable membrane, directing surface water away from the landslide, draining ground water away from the landslide, and minimizing surface irrigation. Slope stability is also increased when a retaining structure and/or the weight of a soil/rock berm are placed at the toe of the landslide or when mass is removed from the top of the slope.

Landslide Warnings:

Springs, seeps, or saturated ground in areas that have not typically been wet before.
New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground, street pavements or sidewalks.
Soil moving away from foundations.
Ancillary structures such as decks and patios tilting and/or moving relative to the main house.
Tilting or cracking of concrete floors and foundations.
Broken water lines and other underground utilities.
Leaning telephone poles, trees, retaining walls or fences.
Offset fence lines.
Sunken or down-dropped road beds.
Rapid increase in creek water levels, possibly accompanied by increased turbidity (soil content).
Sudden decrease in creek water levels though rain is still falling or just recently stopped.
Sticking doors and windows, and visible open spaces indicating jambs and frames out of plumb.
A faint rumbling sound that increases in volume is noticeable as the landslide nears.
Unusual sounds, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together, might indicate moving debris.

*The New Madrid Seismic Zone, also known as the "Reelfoot Rift" or "the New Madrid Fault Line", is a major seismic zone in the Southern and Midwestern United States.

As a result of the quakes, large areas sank into the earth, new lakes were formed (notably Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee), and the Mississippi River changed its course, creating numerous geographic exclaves, including Kentucky Bend, along the state boundaries which are defined by the river.

El Niño, La Niña and ENSO
El Niño and La Niña are extreme phases of a naturally occurring climate cycle referred to as El Niño/Southern Oscillation. These terms refer to large-scale changes in sea-surface temperature across the eastern tropical Pacific

The terms ENSO and ENSO cycle are used to describe the full range of variability observed in the Southern Oscillation Index, including both El Niño and La Niña events.

Unusual weather conditions occur around the globe as jet streams, storm tracks and monsoons are shifted. Such disarray is caused by a warm current of water that appears in the eastern Pacific Ocean called El Niño. Unfortunately not all El Nino's are the same nor does the atmosphere always react in the same way from one El Nino to another. To date Scientists do not really understand how El Nino actually forms. Unfortunately, the abundant fish populations found off the west coast of Peru South America become the sight of dead fish littering the water and beaches.

El Niño (Southern Oscillation/ENSO) is a large scale weakening of the trade winds and warming of the surface layers in the eastern and central equatorial Pacific Ocean. El Niño has irregular patterns although the average is about once every 3-4 years. They typically last 12-18 months, and are accompanied by swings in the Southern Oscillation due to tropical sea level pressure between the eastern and western hemispheres. During El Niño, unusually high atmospheric sea level pressures develop in the western tropical Pacific and Indian Ocean regions, and unusually low sea level pressures develop in the southeastern tropical Pacific.

In the continental US, during El Niño years, temperatures in the winter are warmer than normal in the North Central States, and cooler than normal in the Southeast and the Southwest. During a La Niña year, winter temperatures are warmer than normal in the Southeast and cooler than normal in the Northwest. At the high latitudes, El Niño and La Niña are among a number of factors that influence climate. However, the impacts of El Niño and La Niña at these latitudes are most clearly seen in wintertime

The Southern Oscillation Index is the difference in surface pressure between Tahiti, French Polynesia and Darwin, Australia is a measure of the strength of the trade winds, which have a component of flow from regions of high to low pressure. High SOI (large pressure difference) is associated with stronger than normal trade winds and La Niña conditions, and low SOI (smaller pressure difference) is associated with weaker than normal trade winds and El Niño conditions.

El Niño denotes a warm southward flowing ocean current that occurs every year around late December off the west coast of Peru and Ecuador. The term was later restricted to unusually strong warmings that disrupted local fish and bird populations every few years. However, as a result of the frequent association of South American coastal temperature anomalies with interannual basin scale equatorial warm events, El Niño has also become synonymous with larger scale, climatically significant, warm events. There is not, however, unanimity in the use of the term El Niño.

La Niña, is defined as colder than normal sea-surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific ocean that impact global weather patterns. La Niña conditions recur every few years and can persist for as long as two years. La Niña is preceded by a buildup of cooler-than-normal subsurface waters in the tropical Pacific. Eastward-moving atmospheric and oceanic waves help bring the cold water to the surface through a complex series of events still being studied. In time, the easterly trade winds strengthen, cold upwelling off Peru and Ecuador intensifies, sea-surface temperatures along the equator can fall as much as 7 degrees F below normal.

La Niña conditions typically last approximately 9-12 months, and occasionally episodes may continue for a few years.

GALAXIES

Galaxies are large systems of stars and interstellar matter, typically containing several million to some trillion stars. Some with masses between several million and several trillion times that of our Sun, typically separated by millions of light years in distance. The galaxies represent a variety: Spiral, lenticular, elliptical and irregular. Besides simple stars, they typically contain various types of star clusters and nebulae.

Retreating Galaxies of the ever expanding Universe
Ho=V/D
Ho=constant/ V Recessional = velocity and D = the distance away from Earth

The Universe is approximately 12.5 Billion years old, the Earth 4.5 Billion years old.

*Satellite Galaxies of The Milky Way*	*Light Years from Earth*
Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy	25,000
Virgo Stellar Stream	30,000
Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy	81,000
Large Magellanic Cloud	168,000
Boötes Dwarf Galaxy	197,000
Small Magellanic Cloud	200,000
Ursa Minor Dwarf Galaxy	240,000
Sculptor Dwarf Galaxy	254,000
Draco Dwarf Galaxy	280,000
Sextans Dwarf Galaxy	320,000
Ursa Major Dwarf	330,000
Carina Dwarf Galaxy	360,000
Fornax Dwarf Galaxy	460,000

The next nearest Galaxy is almost double the light years from that of the Fornax Dwarf Galaxy.

Andromeda:

This is the nearest major galaxy to our own Milky Way. It is about 900 kiloparsecs or 3 million light years away. It is similar to our own galaxy in structure with spiral arms, a bulging central disc and is about 30 kiloparsecs across.

Magellanic clouds:

Two small irregular galaxies called the "Magellanic Clouds" are relatively near the Milky Way. The Large Magellanic Cloud is at about 160,000 light years and the Small Magellanic Cloud is at about 200,000 light years from us.

Triangulum Galaxy:

This is a *spiral Galaxy, also known as Messier 33 or NGC 598. This galaxy is approximately 3 million light-years away from earth in the constellation Triangulum. (It is not the Pinwheel Galaxy, which is Messier 101) Messier 33 is the most distant object seen by the naked eye.

Spiral and Elliptical Galaxies

Ellipticals

Elliptical galaxies were denoted by the letter E and a number describing the galaxy's apparent shape - 0 for a completely round form, 5 for one twice as long as wide, and 7 for the apparently flattest genuine ellipticals. It is not known, solely from an image, the actual true shape of such a galaxy; the same galaxy might have quite different degrees of flattening if viewed from different directions. Elliptical galaxies are, in general, characterized by old stellar populations and very little of the gas and dust needed to form new stars. They have a uniform luminosity and are similar to the bulge in a spiral galaxy, but with no disk. The stars are old and there is no gas present. These are small galaxies with no bulge and an ill-defined shape. "The Magellenic clouds are examples".

Lenticulars

They possess both a bulge and a disk, but lack spiral arms. There is little or no gas and so all the stars are old. They appear to be an intermediate.

*Spirals

Fall into several classes depending on their shape and the relative size of the bulge. Spiral galaxies are characterized by the presence of gas in the disk which means star formation remains active at the present time, hence the younger population of stars. Spirals are divided into ordinary and barred spirals; in barred systems the spiral arms arise from a straight ``bar" passing through the center, while ordinary spirals have a more S-shaped inner configuration. Ordinary spiral are denoted S and barred systems SB. Both usually contain a central bulge, often sharing many properties with elliptical galaxies, surrounded by a thin rotating disk containing whatever spiral structure there may be. Spirals are subdivided into a sequence jointly defined by the winding and prominence of the spiral arms, and the relative importance of the central bulge. Spirals are usually found in the low density galactic field where their delicate shape can avoid disruption by tidal forces from neighboring galaxies.

Q.T. Did you know that parts of the Rocky Mountains are still growing higher.

Geologic & Volcanic Glossary

'A'a: Hawaiian word used to describe a lava flow whose surface is broken into rough angular fragments. Click here to view a photo of 'a'a.

Accessory: A mineral whose presence in a rock is not essential to the proper classification of the rock.

Accidental: Pyroclastic rocks that are formed from fragments of non-volcanic rocks or from volcanic rocks not related to the erupting volcano.

Accretionary Lava Ball: A rounded mass, ranging in diameter from a few centimeters to several meters, [carried] on the surface of a lava flow (e.g., 'a'a) or on cinder-cone slopes [and formed] by the molding of viscous lava around a core of already solidified lava.

Acid: A descriptive term applied to igneous rocks with more than 60% silica (SiO2).

Active Volcano: A volcano that is erupting. Also, a volcano that is not presently erupting, but that has erupted within historical time and is considered likely to do so in the future.

Agate: A variety of quartz distinguished by its extremely fine grain size and bright colors. Agates may occur in almost any kind of rock, but are especially common in volcanics.

Agglutinate: A pyroclastic deposit consisting of an accumulation of originally plastic ejecta and formed by the coherence of the fragments upon solidification.

Alkalic: Rocks which contain above average amounts of sodium and/or potassium for the group of rocks for which it belongs. For example, the basalts of the capping stage of Hawaiian volcanoes are alkalic. They contain more sodium and/or potassium than the shield-building basalts that make the bulk of the volcano.

Andesite: Volcanic rock (or lava) characteristically medium dark in color and containing 54 to 62 percent silica and moderate amounts of iron and magnesium.

Ash: Fine particles of pulverized rock blown from an explosion vent. Measuring less than 1/10 inch in diameter, ash may be either solid or molten when first erupted. By far the most common variety is vitric ash (glassy particles formed by gas bubbles bursting through liquid magma).

Ashfall (Airfall): Volcanic ash that has fallen through the air from an eruption cloud. A deposit so formed is usually well sorted and layered.

Ash Flow: A turbulent mixture of gas and rock fragments, most of which are ash-sized particles, ejected violently from a crater or fissure. The mass of pyroclastics is normally of very high temperature and moves rapidly down the slopes or even along a level surface.

Asthenosphere: The shell within the earth, some tens of kilometers below the surface and of undefined thickness, which is a shell of weakness where plastic movements take place to permit pressure adjustments.

Aquifer: A body of rock that contains significant quantities of water that can be tapped by wells or springs.

Avalanche: A large mass of material or mixtures of material falling or sliding rapidly under the force of gravity. Avalanches often are classified by their content, such as snow, ice, soil, or rock avalanches. A mixture of these materials is a debris avalanche.

Basalt: The commonest volcanic rock. Basalt is very fine grained, has a smooth texture, and is quite black if fresh. Weathered or altered basalt may be greenish black or various rusty shades of brown, occasionally even brick red. Many specimens are full of gas bubbles. Contains 45% to 54% silica, and generally is rich in iron and magnesium.

Basement: The undifferentiated rocks that underlie the rocks of interest in an area.

Basic: A descriptive term applied to igneous rocks (basalt and gabbro) with silica (SiO2) between 44% and 52%.

Bauxite: A type of laterite soil that is very rich in aluminum and poor in iron. The best bauxites are nearly white.

Bench: The unstable, newly-formed front of a lava delta.

Blister: A swelling of the crust of a lava flow formed by the puffing-up of gas or vapor beneath the flow. Blisters are about 1 meter in diameter and hollow.

Block: Angular chunk of solid rock ejected during an eruption.

Bomb: Fragment of molten or semi-molten rock, 2 1/2 inches to many feet in diameter, which is blown out during an eruption. Because of their plastic condition, bombs are often modified in shape during their flight or upon impact.

Caldera: A basin-shaped volcanic depression; by definition, at least a mile in diameter. Such large depressions are typically formed by the subsidence of volcanoes. Crater Lake occupies the best-known caldera in the Cascades.

Capping Stage: Refers to a stage in the evolution of a typical Hawaiian volcano during which alkalic, basalt, and related rocks build a steeply, sloping cap on the main shield of the volcano. Eruptions are less frequent, but more explosive. The summit caldera may be buried.

Central Vent: A central vent is an opening at the Earth's surface of a volcanic conduit of cylindrical or pipe-like form.

Central Volcano: A volcano constructed by the ejection of debris and lava flows from a central point, forming a more or less symmetrical volcano.

Chromite: A mineral composed of chromium oxide. It is heavy and black and the only mineral source of chromium. Chromite always occurs in peridotite or serpentinite.

Cinder Cone: A volcanic cone built entirely of loose fragmented material (pyroclastics.)

Cirque: A steep-walled horseshoe-shaped recess high on a mountain that is formed by glacial erosion.

Cleavage: The breaking of a mineral along crystallographic planes that reflects a crystal structure.

Composite Volcano: A steep volcanic cone built by both lava flows and pyroclastic eruptions.

Compound Volcano: A volcano that consists of a complex of two or more vents, or a volcano that has an associated volcanic dome, either in its crater or on its flanks. Examples are Vesuvius and Mont Pelee.

Compression Waves: Earthquake waves that move like a slinky. As the wave moves to the left, for example, it expands and compresses in the same direction as it moves. Usage of compression waves.

Conduit: A passage followed by magma in a volcano.

Continental Crust: Solid, outer layers of the earth, including the rocks of the continents. Usage of continental crust.

Continental Drift: The theory that horizontal movement of the earth's surface causes slow, relative movements of the continents toward or away from one another.

Country Rocks: The rock intruded by and surrounding an igneous intrusion.

Crater: A steep-sided, usually circular depression formed by either explosion or collapse at a volcanic vent.

Craton: A part of the earth's crust that has attained stability and has been little deformed for a prolonged period.

Cretaceous: The interval of time between 135 and 70 million years before the present.

Crust: The rigit outer part of the earth extending down to a depth of about 60 miles.

Curtain of Fire: A row of coalescing lava fountains along a fissure; a typical feature of a Hawaiian-type eruption.

Dacite: Volcanic rock (or lava) that characteristically is light in color and contains 62% to 69% silica and moderate a mounts of sodium and potassium.

Debris Avalanche: A rapid and unusually sudden sliding or flowage of unsorted masses of rock and other material. As applied to the major avalanche involved in the eruption of Mount St. Helens, a rapid mass movement that included fragmented cold and hot volcanic rock, water, snow, glacier ice, trees, and some hot pyroclastic material. Most of the May 18, 1980 deposits in the upper valley of the North Fork Toutle River and in the vicinity of Spirit Lake are from the debris avalanche.

Debris Flow: A mixture of water-saturated rock debris that flows downslope under the force of gravity (also called lahar or mudflow).

Detachment Plane: The surface along which a landslide disconnects from its original position.

Devonian: A period of time in the Paleozoic Era that covered the time span between 400 and 345 million years.

Diatreme: A breccia filled volcanic pipe that was formed by a gaseous explosion.

Dike: A sheetlike body of igneous rock that cuts across layering or contacts in the rock into which it intrudes.

Diorite: A coarsely granular rock composed of milky crystals of feldspar and abundant grains of black hornblende or mica. It some-what resembles granite except for being much darker and lacking quartz. Like granite, it forms when molten magma cools deep within the earth's crust.

Dome: A steep-sided mass of viscous (doughy) lava extruded from a volcanic vent (often circular in plane view) and spiny, rounded, or flat on top. Its surface is often rough and blocky as a result of fragmentation of the cooler, outer crust during growth of the dome.

Dormant Volcano: Literally, "sleeping." The term is used to describe a volcano which is presently inactive but which may erupt again. Most of the major Cascade volcanoes are believed to be dormant rather than extinct.

Drainage Basin: The area of land drained by a river system.

Echelon: Set of geologic features that are in an overlapping or a staggered arrangement (e.g., faults). Each is relatively short, but collectively they form a linear zone in which the strike of the individual features is oblique to that of the zone as a whole.

Ejecta: Material that is thrown out by a volcano, including pyroclastic material (tephra) and lava bombs.

Eocene: The period of time between about 60 and 40 million years before the present.

Episode: An episode is a volcanic event that is distinguished by its duration or style.

Eruption: The process by which solid, liquid, and gaseous materials are ejected into the earth's atmosphere and onto the earth's surface by volcanic activity. Eruptions range from the quiet overflow of liquid rock to the tremendously violent expulsion of pyroclastics.

Eruption Cloud: The column of gases, ash, and larger rock fragments rising from a crater or other vent. If it is of sufficient volume and velocity, this gaseous column may reach many miles into the stratosphere, where high winds will carry it long distances.

Eruptive Vent: The opening through which volcanic material is emitted.

Evacuate: Temporarily move people away from possible danger.

Extinct Volcano: A volcano that is not presently erupting and is not likely to do so for a very long time in the future. Usage of extinct.

Extrusion: The emission of magmatic material at the earth's surface. Also, the structure or form produced by the process (e.g., a lava flow, volcanic dome, or certain pyroclastic rocks).

Fault: A crack or fracture in the earth's surface. Movement along the fault can cause earthquakes or--in the process of mountain-building--can release underlying magma and permit it to rise to the surface.

Fault Scarp: A steep slope or cliff formed directly by movement along a fault and representing the exposed surface of the fault before modification by erosion and weathering.

Feldspar: An extremely common and abundant family of minerals most which of which are rather milky in appearance. In light-colored rocks the feldspars are commonly pink or white; in dark -colored rocks they are usually either greenish or white.

Fire fountain: See also: lava fountain

Fissures: Elongated fractures or cracks on the slopes of a volcano. Fissure eruptions typically produce liquid flows, but pyroclastics may also be ejected.

Flank Eruption: An eruption from the side of a volcano (in contrast to a summit eruption.)

Fluvial: Produced by the action of of flowing water.

Formation: A body of rock identified by lithic characteristics and stratigraphic position and is mappable at the earth's surface or traceable in the subsurface.

Fracture: The manner of breaking due to intense folding or faulting.

Fumarole: A vent or opening through which issue steam, hydrogen sulfide, or other gases. The craters of many dormant volcanoes contain active fumaroles.

Gabbro: A coarsely granular rock composed of greenish white feldspar and black pyroxene. It is usually very dark in color.

Geothermal Energy: Energy derived from the internal heat of the earth.

Geothermal Power: Power generated by using the heat energy of the earth.

Graben: An elongate crustal block that is relatively depressed (downdropped) between two fault systems.

Granite: A granular rock composed of crystals of glassy-looking quartz, milky feldspar, and black hornblende or biotite. It forms when andesite magma cools very slowly beneath the surface.

Greenstone: Volcanic rocks that have been recrystallized at high temperature and pressure (metamorphosed). Their bright green color is both startling and distinctive.

Guyot: A type of seamount that has a platform top. Named for a nineteenth-century Swiss-American geologist.

Hardness: The resistance of a mineral to scratching.

Harmonic Tremor: A continuous release of seismic energy typically associated with the underground movement of magma. It contrasts distinctly with the sudden release and rapid decrease of seismic energy associated with the more common type of earthquake caused by slippage along a fault.

Heat transfer: Movement of heat from one place to another.

Heterolithologic: Material is made up of a heterogeneous mix of different rock types. Instead of being composed on one rock type, it is composed of fragments of many different rocks.

Holocene: The time period from 10,000 years ago to the present. Also, the rocks and deposits of that age.

Horizontal Blast: An explosive eruption in which the resultant cloud of hot ash and other material moves laterally rather than upward.

Horst: A block of the earth's crust, generally long compared to its width that has been uplifted along faults relative to the rocks on either side.

Hot Spot: A volcanic center, 60 to 120 miles (100 to 200 km) across and persistent for at least a few tens of millions of years, that is thought to be the surface expression of a persistent rising plume of hot mantle material. Hot spots are not linked to arcs and may not be associated with ocean ridges.

Hot-spot Volcanoes: Volcanoes related to a persistent heat source in the mantle.

Hyaloclastite: A deposit formed by the flowing or intrusion of lava or magma into water, ice, or water-saturated sediment and its consequent granulation or shattering into small angular fragments.

Hydrothermal Reservoir: An underground zone of porous rock containing hot water.

Hypabyssal: A shallow intrusion of magma or the resulting solidified rock.

Hypocenter: The place on a buried fault where an earthquake occurs.

Igneous Rock: A rock formed by cooling of a molten magma either on the surface after it has erupted from a volcano or at depth within the crust of the earth.

Ignimbrite: The rock formed by the widespread deposition and consolidation of ash flows and Nuees Ardentes. The term was originally applied only to densely welded deposits but now includes non-welded deposits.

Intensity: A measure of the effects of an earthquake at a particular place. Intensity depends not only on the magnitude of the earthquake, but also on the distance from the epicenter and the local geology.

Intermediate: A descriptive term applied to igneous rocks that are transitional between basic and acidic with silica (SiO2) between 54% and 65%.

Intrusion: The process of emplacement of magma in pre-existing rock. Also, the term refers to igneous rock mass so formed within the surrounding rock.

Joint: A surface of fracture in a rock.

Jurassic: The geologic period that began about 180 million years before the present and ended about 135 million years before the present.

Juvenile: Pyroclastic material derived directly from magma reaching the surface.

Kipuka: An area surrounded by a lava flow.

Laccolith: A body of igneous rocks with a flat bottom and domed top. It is parallel to the layers above and below it.

Lahar: A torrential flow of water-saturated volcanic debris down the slope of a volcano in response to gravity. A type of mudflow.

Landsat: A series of unmanned satellites orbiting at about 706 km (438 miles) above the surface of the earth. The satellites carry cameras similar to video cameras and take images or pictures showing features as small as 30 m or 80 m wide, depending on which camera is used.

Lapilli: Literally, "little stones." Round to angular rock fragments, measuring 1/10 inch to 2 1/2 inches in diameter, which may be ejected in either a solid or molten state.

Laterite: A type of red soil that develops under wet, tropical conditions. Most laterite soils are very deep and also very infertile.

Lava: Magma which has reached the surface through a volcanic eruption. The term is most commonly applied to streams of liquid rock that flow from a crater or fissure. It also refers to cooled and solidified rock.

Lava Dome: Mass of lava, created by many individual flows, that has built a dome-shaped pile of lava.

Lava Flow: An outpouring of lava onto the land surface from a vent or fissure. Also, a solidified tongue like or sheet-like body formed by outpouring lava.

Lava Fountain: A rhythmic vertical fountain like eruption of lava.

Lava Lake (Pond): A lake of molten lava, usually basaltic, contained in a vent, crater, or broad depression of a shield volcano.

Lava Shields: A shield volcano made of basaltic lava.

Lava Tube: A tunnel formed when the surface of a lava flow cools and solidifies while the still-molten interior flows through and drains away.

Limu O Pele (Pele Seaweed): Delicate, translucent sheets of spatter filled with tiny glass bubbles.

Limestone: Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate). The primary source of this calcite is usually marine organisms. These organisms secrete shells that settle out of the water column and are deposited on ocean floors as pelagic ooze

Lithic: Of or pertaining to stone.

Lithosphere: The rigid crust and uppermost mantle of the earth. Thickness is on the order of 60 miles (100 km). Stronger than the underlying asthenosphere.

Luster: The reflection of light from the surface of a mineral.

Maar: A volcanic crater that is produced by an explosion in an area of low relief, is generally more or less circular, and often contains a lake, pond, or marsh.

Mafic: An igneous composed chiefly of one or more dark-colored minerals.

Magma: Molten rock beneath the surface of the earth.

Magma Chamber: The subterranean cavity containing the gas-rich liquid magma which feeds a volcano.

Magmatic: Pertaining to magma.

Magnitude: A numerical expression of the amount of energy released by an earthquake, determined by measuring earthquake waves on standardized recording instruments (seismographs.) The number scale for magnitudes is logarithmic rather than arithmetic. Therefore, deflections on a seismograph for a magnitude 5 earthquake, for example, are 10 times greater than those for a magnitude 4 earthquake, 100 times greater than for a magnitude 3 earthquake, and so on.

Mantle: The zone of the earth below the crust and above the core.

Marine Rocks: Rocks that formed in seawater.

Matrix: The solid matter in which a fossil or crystal is embedded. Also, a binding substance (e.g., cement in concrete).

Mesozoic: The era of geologic time comprising the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Mesozoic time began about 225 million years before the present and ended about 70 million years before the present.

Metamorphism: The process of recrystallizing rocks under conditions of high temperature and pressure and converting them (Recrystallizing) into new kinds of rock.

Mica: A family of common minerals which may be either black or colorless but are always flaky. Especially abundant in granites and similar rocks.

Miocene: An epoch in Earth's history from about 24 to 5 million years ago. Also refers to the rocks that formed in that epoch.

Moho: Also called the Mohorovicic discontinuity. The surface or discontinuity that separates the crust from the mantle. The Moho is at a depth of 5-10 km beneath the ocean floor and about 35 km below the continents (but down to 60 km below mountains). Named for Andrija Mohorovicic, a Croatian seismologist.

Monogenetic: A volcano built by a single eruption.

Mudflow: A flowage of water-saturated earth material possessing a high degree of fluidity during movement. A less-saturated flowing mass is often called a debris flow. A mudflow originating on the flank of a volcano is properly called a lahar.

Mudstone: A sedimentary rock that started out as mud.

Nuees Ardentes: A French term applied to a highly heated mass of gas-charged ash which is expelled with explosive force and moves hurricane speed down the mountainside.

Obsidian: A black or dark-colored volcanic glass usually composed of rhyolite.

Obligocene: The geologic period that started about 40 million years before the present and ended about 14 million years before the present.

Olivine: A pale green mineral which occurs in small crystals scattered through black ingneous rocks. Peridotite always contains olivine and so do some varieties of basalt and gabbro.

Oceanic Crust: The earth's crust where it underlies oceans.

Pali: Hawaiian word for steep hills or cliffs.

Pele Hair: A natural spun glass formed by blowing-out during quiet fountaining of fluid lava, cascading lava falls, or turbulent flows, sometimes in association with pele tears. A single strand, with a diameter of less than half a millimeter, may be as long as two meters.

Pele Tears: Small, solidified drops of volcanic glass behind which trail pendants of Pele hair. They may be tear-shaped, spherical, or nearly cylindrical.

Peralkaline: Igneous rocks in which the molecular proportion of aluminum oxide is less than that of sodium and potassium oxides combined.

Peridotite: A heavy,. black rock that forms most of the earth's interior. It is composed principally of black pyroxene and green olivine.

Perlite: A glassy form of rhyolite that contains some water. Most perlite is rather greenish but it comes in other colors. It puffs up like popcorn upon roasting to make lightweight chunks useful as a soil additive and in making special purpose concrete.

Phenocryst: A conspicuous, usually large, crystal embedded in porphyritic igneous rock.

Phreatic Eruption (Explosion): An explosive volcanic eruption caused when water and heated volcanic rocks interact to produce a violent expulsion of steam and pulverized rocks. Magma is not involved.

Phreatomagmatic: An explosive volcanic eruption that results from the interaction of surface or subsurface water and magma.

Pillow lava: Interconnected, sack-like bodies of lava formed underwater.

Pipe: A vertical conduit through the Earth's crust below a volcano, through which magmatic materials have passed. Commonly filled with volcanic breccia and fragments of older rock.

Pit Crater: A crater formed by sinking in of the surface, not primarily a vent for lava.

Plagioclase: A variety of feldspar which contains sodium and potassium.

Plastic: Capable of being molded into any form, which is retained.

Plates: One of the rigid slabs that make the outer crust of the earth. Plates are about 60 miles thick and most of them cover areas of many hundreds of square miles.

Plate Tectonics: The theory that the earth's crust is broken into about 10 fragments (plates,) which move in relation to one another, shifting continents, forming new ocean crust, and stimulating volcanic eruptions.

Pleistocene: A epoch in Earth history from about 2-5 million years to 10,000 years ago. Also refers to the rocks and sediment deposited in that epoch.

Plinian Eruption: An explosive eruption in which a steady, turbulent stream of fragmented magma and magmatic gases is released at a high velocity from a vent. Large volumes of tephra and tall eruption columns are characteristic.

Plug: Solidified lava that fills the conduit of a volcano. It is usually more resistant to erosion than the material making up the surrounding cone, and may remain standing as a solitary pinnacle when the rest of the original structure has eroded away.

Plug Dome: The steep-sided, rounded mound formed when viscous lava wells up into a crater and is too stiff to flow away. It piles up as a dome-shaped mass, often completely filling the vent from which it emerged.

Pluton: A large igneous intrusion formed at great depth in the crust.

Polygenetic: Originating in various ways or from various sources.

Precambrian:All geologic time from the beginning of Earth history to 570 million years ago. Also refers to the rocks that formed in that epoch.

Pumice: Light-colored, frothy volcanic rock, usually of dacite or rhyolite composition, formed by the expansion of gas in erupting lava. Commonly seen as lumps or fragments of pea-size and larger, but can also occur abundantly as ash-sized particles. Usage of pumice.

Pyroclastic: Pertaining to fragmented (clastic) rock material formed by a volcanic explosion or ejection from a volcanic vent.

Pyroclastic Flow: Lateral flowage of a turbulent mixture of hot gases and unsorted pyroclastic material (volcanic fragments, crystals, ash, pumice, and glass shards) that can move at high speed (50 to 100 miles an hour.) The term also can refer to the deposit so formed.

Quartz: The commonest of all minerals. It comes in a variety of colors and disguises, but usually occurs in clear, glassy grains. Quartz is the mineral form of silica.

Quaternary: The period of Earth's history from about 2 million years ago to the present; also, the rocks and deposits of that age.

Radiocarbon Dating: A method of determining the age of specimens of organic material by analysing their content of carbon-14 which is weakly radioactive. The method only works on objects less than about 40,000 years old, so geologist rarely use it.

Relief: The vertical difference between the summit of a mountain and the adjacent valley or plain.

Renewed Volcanism State: Refers to a state in the evolution of a typical Hawaiian volcano during which --after a long period of quiescence--lava and tephra erupt intermittently. Erosion and reef building continue.

Repose: The interval of time between volcanic eruptions.

Rhyodacite: An extrusive rock intermediate in composition between dacite and rhyolite.

Rhyolite: Volcanic rock (or lava) that characteristically is light in color, contains 69% silica or more, and is rich in potassium and sodium.

Ridge, Oceanic: A major submarine mountain range.

Rift System: The oceanic ridges formed where tectonic plates are separating and a new crust is being created; also, their on-land counterparts such as the East African Rift.

Rift Zone: A zone of volcanic features associated with underlying dikes. The location of the rift is marked by cracks, faults, and vents.

Ring of Fire: The regions of mountain-building earthquakes and volcanoes which surround the Pacific Ocean.

Sandstone: A common sedimentary rock that was originally sand.

Scoria: A bomb-size (> 64 mm) pyroclast that is irregular in form and generally very vesicular. It is usually heavier, darker, and more crystalline than pumice.

Seafloor Spreading: The mechanism by which new seafloor crust is created at oceanic ridges and slowly spreads away as plates are separating.

Seamount: A submarine volcano.

Seismograph: An instrument that records seismic waves; that is, vibrations of the earth.

Seismologist: Scientists who study earthquake waves and what they tell us about the inside of the Earth. Usage of seismologist.

Seismometer: An instrument that measures motion of the ground caused by earthquake waves.

Serpentinite: A dark, greenish rock that is usually fairly soft and rather greasy looking. Many specimens feel soapy because they contain some talc. Serpentinite forms by the reaction of peridotite with water. It forms an important part of the oceanic crust.

Shearing: The motion of surfaces sliding past one another.

Shear Waves: Earthquake waves that move up and down as the wave itself moves. For example, to the left. Usage of shear waves.

Shield Volcano: A gently sloping volcano (very low profile) in the shape of a flattened dome and built almost exclusively of lava flows.

Shoshonite: A trachyandesite composed of olivine and augite phenocrysts in a groundmass of labradorite with alkali feldspar rims, olivine, augite, a small amount of leucite, and some dark-colored glass. Its name is derived from the Shoshone River, Wyoming and given by Iddings in 1895.

Silica: A chemical combination of silicon and oxygen.

Sill: A tabular body of intrusive igneous rock, parallel to the layering of the rocks into which it intrudes.

Skylight: An opening formed by a collapse in the roof of a lava tube.

Solfatara: A type of fumarole, the gases of which are characteristically sulfurous.

Spatter Cone: A low, steep-sided cone of spatter built up on a fissure or vent. It is usually of basaltic material.

Spatter Rampart: A ridge of congealed pyroclastic material (usually basaltic) built up on a fissure or vent.

Specific Gravity: The density of a mineral divided by the density of water.

Spines: Horn-like projections formed upon a lava dome.

Stalactite: A cone shaped deposit of minerals hanging from the roof of a cavern.

Stratigraphic: The study of rock strata, especially of their distribution, deposition, and age.

Stratovolcano: A volcano composed of both lava flows and pyroclastic material.

Streak: The color of a mineral in the powdered form.

Strike-Slip Fault: A nearly vertical fault with side-slipping displacement.

Strombolian Eruption: A type of volcanic eruption characterized by jetting of clots or fountains of fluid basaltic lava from a central crater.

Subduction Zone: The zone of convergence of two tectonic plates, one of which usually overrides the other.

Surge: A ring-shaped cloud of gas and suspended solid debris that moves radially outward at high velocity as a density flow from the base of a vertical eruption column accompanying a volcanic eruption or crater formation.

Talus: A slope formed a the base of a steeper slope, made of fallen and disintegrated materials.

Tephra: Materials of all types and sizes that are erupted from a crater or volcanic vent and deposited from the air.

Tephrochronology: The collection, preparation, petrographic description, and approximate dating of tephra.

Tertiary: The period between the end of the Cretaceous and the end of the Pliocene time. The Teritiary period began about 70 million years before the present and ended about 3 million year before the present.

Tilt: The angle between the slope of a part of a volcano and some reference. The reference may be the slope of the volcano at some previous time.

Trachyandesite: An extrusive rock intermediate in composition between trachyte and andesite.

Trachybasalt: An extrusive rock intermediate in composition between trachyte and basalt.

Trachyte: A group of fine-grained, generally porphyritic, extrusive igneous rocks having alkali feldspar and minor mafic minerals as the main components, and possibly a small amount of sodic plagioclase.

Tremor: Low amplitude, continuous earthquake activity often associated with magma movement.

Triassic: The period of geologic time that began about 225 years before the present and ended about 180 million years before the present.

Tsunami: A great sea wave produced by a submarine earthquake, volcanic eruption, or large landslide.

Tuff: Rock formed of pyroclastic material.

Tuff Cone: A type of volcanic cone formed by the interaction of basaltic magma and water. Smaller and steeper than a tuff ring.

Tuff Ring: A wide, low-rimmed, well-bedded accumulation of hyalo-clastic debris built around a volcanic vent located in a lake, coastal zone, marsh, or area of abundant ground water.

Tumulus: A doming or small mound on the crest of a lava flow caused by pressure due to the difference in the rate of flow between the cooler crust and the more fluid lava below.

Ultramafic: Igneous rocks made mostly of the mafic minerals hypersthene, augite, and/or olivine.

Unconformity: A substantial break or gap in the geologic record where a rock unit is overlain by another that is not next in stratigraphic sucession, such as an interruption in continuity of a depositional sequence of sedimentary rocks or a break between eroded igneous rocks and younger sedimentary strata. It results from a change that caused deposition to cease for a considerable time, and it normally implies uplift and erosion with loss of the previous formed record.

Vent: The opening at the earth's surface through which volcanic materials issue forth.

Vesicle: A small air pocket or cavity formed in volcanic rock during solidification.

Viscosity: A measure of resistance to flow in a liquid (water has low viscosity while honey has a higher viscosity.)

Volcano: A vent in the surface of the Earth through which magma and associated gases and ash erupt; also, the form or structure (usually conical) that is produced by the ejected material.

Volcanic Arc: A generally curved linear belt of volcanoes above a subduction zone, and the volcanic and plutonic rocks formed there.

Volcanic Complex: A persistent volcanic vent area that has built a complex combination of volcanic landforms.

Volcanic Cone: A mound of loose material that was ejected ballistically.

Volcanic Neck: A massive pillar of rock more resistant to erosion than the lavas and pyroclastic rocks of a volcanic cone.

Vulcanian: A type of eruption consisting of the explosive ejection of incandescent fragments of new viscous lava, usually on the form of blocks. ("Vulcan" was the Roman god of fire)

Weathering: The complex of processes that combine to decompose solid rock into soil.

Water Table: The surface between where the pore space in rock is filled with water and where the pore space in rock is filled with air.

Xenocrysts: A crystal that resembles a phenocryst in igneous rock, but is a foreign to the body of rock in which it occurs.

Xenoliths: A foreign inclusion in an igneous rock.

Zeolites: A family of minerals that most often occur as light-colored fillings in the gas bubbles of old lava flows.

GLOBAL WARMING

Facts and Fiction

Undoubtedly, mankind has contributed to some warming of the atmosphere in the last 150 years (since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Europe), but the jury is out on just what man's total contribution has been.

Scientists as a whole agree that global average temperature is about 0.6°Celsius—or just over 1° F higher than it was a century ago, they also agree that the atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide (CO²) have risen by about 30 percent over the past 200 years (This is prior to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution) and further agree that carbon dioxide, like *water vapor, is a greenhouse gas whose increase is likely to warm the Earth’s atmosphere.

When taking into consideration the venting (hydrothermal vents) of gases from the Oceans (*which contribute over 80% of the carbon dioxide into the atmosphere), the contribution of the Volcano’s worldwide, natural decay from the soil and the earth’s radiating mantle and then throw in mankind's growing contribution (arguably 2%-5%) of fossil burning and we have something that must be understood and dealt with, if possible.

There is the real possibility that nature’s natural contribution is huge and is beyond anything we can control or change. Scientist are not in agreement as to whether we even know enough to ascribe past temperature changes to carbon dioxide levels, as we are lacking in enough data to confidently predict future temperature levels and to what those levels might be.

When it comes to Global Warming, there are many scientific considerations to ponder. The planet Earth is but a small part of the spiraling universe, affected with cyclical events, and not understood by science. We have no actual of record of events that happened with relation to Earth and the Sun, or the Moon sixty five million years ago, not to mention 10,000 years BP. Possibly solar variations could contribute to a significant change in our climate with regard to cooling and warming cycles throughout Earths 4.6 Billion year history, It is a fact that Earth is affected with a whole spectrum of climate variations on scales of a few thousand years, from the well-known cycles of about 40,000 and 23,000 years, driven by the tilting and wobbling of Earth's axis. Unfortunately, we do not know what has happened or what is to come.

The National Academy of Sciences reported that, "Because of the large and still uncertain level of natural variability inherent in the climate record and the uncertainties in the time histories of the various forcing agents…a causal linkage between the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the observed climate changes during the 20th century cannot be unequivocally established." It also noted that 20 years’ worth of data is not long enough to estimate long-term trends. Recent satellite and weather balloon soundings suggests that the atmosphere has warmed considerably less than greenhouse theory suggests. These measurements, which cover the whole atmosphere and show only a very slight warming, show a disparity with the surface temperature measurements, which cover only a small fraction of the Earth but do show, sustained warming.

Over the past 150 years many mountain glaciers that have been monitored have been shrinking. Glaciers at lower latitudes are now disappearing, and some scientists predict that according to their climate models, the majority of glaciers will be gone by the year 2100. As glaciers continue to shrink, summer water flows will drop sharply, disrupting an important source of water for irrigation and power in many areas that rely on mountain watersheds. Science does not know for sure if this shrinking will actually be the demise of the all glaciers, as some glaciers are actually growing. Of late, Canada, Alaska, Siberia, and the Antarctic have been experiencing warming well above the global average for the past few decades. This trend fits "climate model" predictions for a world with increasing levels of greenhouse gases. Melting permafrost is forcing the reconstruction of roads, airports, and buildings and is increasing erosion and the frequency of landslides. Reduced sea ice and ice shelves, changes in snowfall, and pest infestations have affected native plants and animals that provide food and resources to many people.

Two of the World most eminent experts, James Hansen of NASA—the father of greenhouse theory—and Richard Lindzen of MIT—the most renowned climatologist in the world—agree that, even if nothing is done to restrict greenhouse gases, the world will only see a global temperature increase of about 1°C in the next 50-100 years. Hansen and his colleagues "predict additional warming in the next 50 years of 0.5 ± 0.2°C, a warming rate of 0.1 ± 0.04°C per decade." Ref: United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS).

Another issue that is lacking in discussion is that of Earthquake activity. Earthquakes have broken up and displaced vast areas of the ocean floor. Some areas of the sea floor are rising while others are sinking. The Himalayan Mountain Range is increasing in height. Glaciers and polar ice are melting and contributing to global ocean levels. The Antarctic continent is rising due to the reduction of weight caused by the melting ice. All of this adds up to major changes in weight distribution within a spinning body, none of which mankind contributes.

Global Warming activist make no mention of one other possible other cause of warming oceans and atmospheric changes. Ice ages and warming periods in earth's past geological history reflect periods of decreased and increased solar storm activity. Global warming is a sign of increasing turbulence and upheavals within the interior of the planet. This is linked to increasing disturbances known to be occurring in the sun. It is no coincidence that we are experiencing global warming during the apex of the current solar maximum. A solar maximum referred to as a double cycle because of the extended and unusual duration of Sunspot activity. This indicates the Sun is currently in one of its cyclic periods of unusual heightened activity.

Wax & Wain:

Every 400,000 years the earth axis swings back and forth through three (3) degrees. Summers being cooler when the Earth is less tilted toward the Sun. Also, the Sun is not consistent in the energy it produces and the position of the Sun and Earth vary as they voyage through time.

Economics & War:

We continue to hear the Global warming activists drumbeat warning of the pending threats from global warming, but they are silent about the much more immediate threats from global warming policies, that governments should begin restricting access to affordable energy, the cause and effect being the increase of disease, human misery throughout the planet Earth. Predicting this restrictive out fall could well surpass the fall of the Roman Empire.

The United States government provides costly subsidies for farmers to produce wheat for ethanol production, yet this very trend uses more fuel to produce than it saves, not to mention the increase of wheat products across the board for everyone, as farmland shifts away from wheat to ethanol production. Not only is this ethanol issue effecting every family in America, it is even effecting the peoples of Egypt, a major wheat importer, the fall in worldwide wheat production has triggered bread shortages and unrest as poor people find it difficult to get enough to eat. The environmental pressure to hasten the use of ethanol is providing fodder for Islamic extremists opposed to Egypt's relatively pro American government.

This is not the time to simply sit back, wait and see. We must proceed forward with other forms of clean energy that will not effect the atmosphere. Unfortunately the only true large source of clean energy to date is that of Nuclear Energy, Countries in Asia and Europe have been using this energy source for over two decades, with no loss of life, excluding Chernobyl, which was a *different type of reactor. The use of Nuclear Energy could vastly reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and subsequently lessen their damaging effects to the earth.

Uranium fuel enriched to 3% in U-235 surrounded by water moderator; this is the option used in all U.S. power reactors. (Used for the production of Electricity)
Natural (or slightly enriched) uranium surrounded by graphite moderator; this is the option used in Chernobyl-type reactors, which is known as an "Unstable Reactor". (Used for the production of Plutonium for nuclear bombs and Electricity)

Another ponder relating to the cause Earths increase in global warming is to ask? At which point is our Sun (which has as a direct correlation to Planet Earth’s environment) in its 200 million year journey around the Milky Way Galaxy, and is it about to get warmer or colder in the next 200 years? The Sun is now 6% warmer today than it was 650 million years ago, a long time before the arrival of mammals and their pollution. It is held in the scientific community that our Sun is approximately half way (+or- a billion years) through it's solar life.

As the sun burns its core of hydrogen, gravity will force a collapse. When compacted, the sun will heat up and burn the small amount of hydrogen that remains in a shell wrapped around the star's core. This will force the sun to expand into a red giant. Eventually, the core will heat up enough to burn stored helium and the sun will fluctuate in size before collapsing into a white dwarf. The fact is the Planet Earth (and most of our sister planets) will have already been incinerated and absorbed billions of years earlier, due to our planet getting brighter with time and that will certainly affect the Earth's climate, eventually temperatures will become high enough that the oceans will evaporate.

The Earth will become a global desert, carbon dioxide levels will drop and there would not be enough carbon dioxide to support photosynthesis, and most plants would die.

Remaining plants would not be sufficient to support a biosphere, so while the entire planet might incinerated in a few billion years, or cast off into a deep freeze, it's possible that life on Earth could be a dead planet in about half a billion years.

Much more to be added.
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GRAVITY

The orbit of the Moon about the Earth could be a consequence of the gravitational force, because the acceleration due to gravity could change the velocity of the Moon in just such a way that it followed an orbit around the earth.

This can be illustrated with the thought experiment shown in the following figure. Suppose we fire a cannon horizontally from a high mountain; the projectile will eventually fall to earth, as indicated by the shortest trajectory in the figure, because of the gravitational force directed toward the center of the Earth and the associated acceleration. (Remember that an acceleration is a change in velocity and that velocity is a vector, so it has both a magnitude and a direction. Thus, an acceleration occurs if either or both the magnitude and the direction of the velocity change.)

But as we increase the muzzle velocity for our imaginary cannon, the projectile will travel further and further before returning to earth. Finally, Newton reasoned that if the cannon projected the cannon ball with exactly the right velocity, the projectile would travel completely around the Earth, always falling in the gravitational field but never reaching the Earth, which is curving away at the same rate that the projectile falls. That is, the cannon ball would have been put into orbit around the Earth. Newton concluded that the orbit of the Moon was of exactly the same nature: the Moon continuously "fell" in its path around the Earth because of the acceleration due to gravity, thus producing its orbit.

By such reasoning, Newton came to the conclusion that any two objects in the Universe exert gravitational attraction on each other, with the force having a universal form:

The constant of proportionality G is known as the universal gravitational constant. It is termed a "universal constant" because it is thought to be the same at all places and all times, and thus universally characterizes the intrinsic strength of the gravitational force.

The Center of Mass for a Binary System

If you think about it a moment, it may seem a little strange that in Kepler's Laws the Sun is fixed at a point in space and the planet revolves around it. Why is the Sun privileged? Kepler had rather mystical ideas about the Sun, endowing it with almost god-like qualities that justified its special place. However Newton, largely as a corollary of his 3rd Law, demonstrated that the situation actually was more symmetrical than Kepler imagined and that the Sun does not occupy a privileged postion; in the process he modified Kepler's 3rd Law. where R is the total separation between the centers of the two objects. The center of mass is familiar to anyone who has ever played on a see-saw. The fulcrum point at which the see-saw will exactly balance two people sitting on either end is the center of mass for the two persons sitting on the see-saw.

Newton's Modification of Kepler's Third Law

Because for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, Newton realized that in the planet-Sun system the planet does not orbit around a stationary Sun. Instead, Newton proposed that both the planet and the Sun orbited around the common center of mass for the planet-Sun system. He then modified Kepler's 3rd Law to read,

where P is the planetary orbital period and the other quantities have the meanings described above, with the Sun as one mass and the planet as the other mass. (As in the earlier discussion of Kepler's 3rd Law, this form of the equation assumes that masses are measured in solar masses, times in Earth years, and distances in astronomical units.) Notice the symmetry of this equation: since the masses are added on the left side and the distances are added on the right side, it doesn't matter whether the Sun is labeled with 1 and the planet with 2, or vice-versa. One obtains the same result in either case.

Now notice what happens in Newton's new equation if one of the masses (either 1 or 2; remember the symmetry) is very large compared with the other. In particular, suppose the Sun is labeled as mass 1, and its mass is much larger than the mass for any of the planets. Then the sum of the two masses is always approximately equal to the mass of the Sun, and if we take ratios of Kepler's 3rd Law for two different planets the masses cancel from the ratio and we are left with the original form of Kepler's 3rd Law:

Thus Kepler's 3rd Law is approximately valid because the Sun is much more massive than any of the planets and therefore Newton's correction is small. The data Kepler had access to were not good enough to show this small effect. However, detailed observations made after Kepler show that Newton's modified form of Kepler's 3rd Law is in better accord with the data than Kepler's original form.

Two Limiting Cases

We can gain further insight by considering the position of the center of mass in two limits. First consider the example just addressed, where one mass is much larger than the other. Then, we see that the center of mass for the system essentially concides with the center of the massive object:

This is the situation in the Solar System: the Sun is so massive compared with any of the planets that the center of mass for a Sun-planet pair is always very near the center of the Sun. Thus, for all practical purposes the Sun IS almost (but not quite) motionless at the center of mass for the system, as Kepler originally thought.

However, now consider the other limiting case where the two masses are equal to each other. Then it is easy to see that the center of mass lies equidistant from the two masses and if they are gravitationally bound to each other, each mass orbits the common center of mass for the system lying midway between them:

This situation occurs commonly with binary stars (two stars bound gravitationally to each other so that they revolve around their common center of mass). In many binary star systems the masses of the two stars are similar and Newton's correction to Kepler's 3rd Law is very large.

These limiting cases for the location of the center of mass are perhaps familiar from our afore-mentioned playground experience. If persons of equal weight are on a see-saw, the fulcrum must be placed in the middle to balance, but if one person weighs much more than the other person, the fulcrum must be placed close to the heavier person to achieve balance.

Weight and the Gravitational Force

We have seen that in the Universal Law of Gravitation the crucial quantity is mass. In popular language mass and weight are often used to mean the same thing; in reality they are related but quite different things. What we commonly call weight is really just the gravitational force exerted on an object of a certain mass. We can illustrate by choosing the Earth as one of the two masses in the previous illustration of the Law of Gravitation:

Thus, the weight of an object of mass m at the surface of the Earth is obtained by multiplying the mass m by the acceleration due to gravity, g, at the surface of the Earth. The acceleration due to gravity is approximately the product of the universal gravitational constant G and the mass of the Earth M, divided by the radius of the Earth, r, squared. (We assume the Earth to be spherical and neglect the radius of the object relative to the radius of the Earth in this discussion.) The measured gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface is found to be about 980 cm/second/second.